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Dedication To celebrate the graduation of my daughter Smita, I have been inspired to write these re ections on the history and meaning of our Hindu heritage. This publication is a gift which I hope will accompany her as a guide in the journey of her life as she ventures into the multi-religious world. I have written an epistle to my daughter, rather than a scholarly tome, because it summarizes the origins and truths of our religion as I have found them through my own understanding and experience. May she ponder them, be proud of their beauty and wisdom, and keep this summary as a remembrance of my devotion. Hari Om. Kishor Trivedi Durham, North Carolina May 31, 1997
Contents What is Hinduism?
1
The Scriptures
2
No Dogmatism: Freedom to Think
4
On Religious Tolerance
5
Brahman: Ultimate Reality
7
Many Gods or One God?
9
Many Paths
12
Di000berent Philosophies
13
Oneness of Creation
15
Who is a Hindu?
16
Selected Readings
18
An Introduction to Hinduism What is Hinduism?
The word Hindu' does not occur in the Vedas, the revelations of this religion; rather, it derives its name from the river Sindhu in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent Sindh, now in Pakistan. At the time of Alexander the Great, the Greeks and the Persians mispronounced the name of the inhabitants of the country to the East of the river Sindhu as Hindus; thus, the religion of these inhabitants became known as Hinduism. Others called the Sindhu river, Indus; hence the origin of the words India and Indians. The correct nomenclature for Hindusim is the Vedic Religion or Sanatana Dharma. The word Sanatana means Eternal in Sanskrit and the word Dharma, although rather complex, basically means religion. Sanatana Dharma is a religion based on eternal principles and values of life. Buddhism, Christianity and Islam are all religions founded by individuals. The dates of their inception are well established and their authors are known. No such dates or founder can be identi ed for Hinduism. It has grown and evolved naturally, and therefore remains gloriously unde ned. Sanatana Dharma also means it is without a beginning or end. Inasmuch as Hinduism began with the world, continues to exist, and will only end with the world itself, it is truly eternal.
Hinduism - A Way of Life
Hinduism is not merely a religion. It is more appropriate to call it a fellowship of religions because of its liberal absorption of the faiths of others. Hinduism is a way of life. It deeply permeates the life of every Hindu from the moment of birth, be he a believer or a non-believer, a scholar or an illiterate. An atheist is not precluded from being a Hindu; hell is not envisioned for the agnostic. Hinduism accepts the reality that there are varying intellectual and spiritual levels in each one of us; hence, we may strive to obtain the same goal, but follow di000berent paths. 1
Hinduism o000bers di000berent religious approaches to persons of di000berent aptitudes, depending on whether one is a philosopher or a technician, a mystic or a person of action, an intellectual or a simple person of faith. Hinduism allows each one of us to be guided by our individual spiritual experience. The Sanskrit term for this is Adhikaribheda.
The Scriptures
The Vedas are the revealed scriptures of this religion and are written in Sanskrit. The Scriptures are divided into two groups: revelations (Sruti) and tradition (Smriti). The Vedas are considered to be the primary authority, while the Smriti texts are deemed secondary (Chart 1). The Vedas literally mean knowledge,' which is believed to be eternal, valid for all time and ages. By tradition, they have been passed down by sages and rishis. The Vedas are four in number: Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda. Each Veda text is divided into three parts: Karma Kanda, Upasana Kanda and Vedanta (also called the Upanishads). The Upanishads contain the essence of Hindu philosophy and mysticism. The secondary texts are further divided into three groups: Laws, Epics and the Puranas. The three major law texts are: Manu smriti, Yajnavalkya smriti and Parasar smriti. These laws can be modi ed or adapted to the needs of an age. Two major Epics or Itihasas are Ramayana and Mahabharata. The former has been dated around 2300 BC and the latter around 1400 BC. Mahabharata contains the famous dialogue between Lord Sri Krishna and Prince Arjuna, called the Bhagvad Gita. The Bhagvad Gita, the Divine Song, is the gist of Hindu philosophy. It is a primary text considered a part of Vedanta. The epics teach the greatest of truths in a story form. Stories from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata are related in gatherings, big and small, throughout India. They are known even to the most illiterate Hindu, and have been handed down through the ages by word of mouth. From these stories, people have learned the rules and the codes of ideal conduct for 2
3 LAWS
SAMAVEDA
VISHNU SHIVA BHAGVATA
PARASAR
ATHARVAVEDA
NARADA
PURANAS
(SMRITI)
TRADITION
BRAHMANDA MATSYA
GARUDA KURMA
VAMANA
SKANDA
VARAHA LINGA BRAHMAVAIVARTA BHAVISYA AGNI MARKANDEYA
BHAGVAD GITA
MAHABHARATA
EPICS
ITIHASA
RAMAYANA
UPANISADS (VEDANTA)
YAJURVEDA
YAJNAVALKYA
BRAHMA PADMA
MANU
RIGVEDA
VEDAS (Knowledge)
REVELATION (SRUTI)
Chart 1 RELIGIOUS LITERATURE
man and woman, patrician and plebeian. The Puranas are eighteen in number, the most popular one being the Bhagvata Purana. Vedic teachings were related orally. The Vedas had been in existence for many centuries prior to Vyasa, who only classi ed the Vedas into four parts. He was the compiler of the Vedas, rather than its author. Hindu mythology revolves around Vedic Gods, the two Epics, and the Puranas.
No Dogmatism: Freedom to Think
Though Hinduism accepts the authority of the Vedas, it does not believe in a dogma and rejects the exclusive claim of even a highly evolved individual to a monopoly on Truth. Intelligent and critical inquiry is one of the canons of scriptural interpretation recognized by Hinduism. The Rigveda states, Let noble thoughts come to us from every side.' A vivid example of this attitude is found in the Bhagvad Gita. Lord Krishna says to his disciple Arjuna at the end of his teaching, Thus has the wisdom, the secret of all secrets, been declared to you by me; having re ected over it fully, then act, as you choose to act,' (Chapter 18, Verse 63). In accord with this ideal, Lord Buddha advised prince of Kosaldesh, Do not accept what I have said to you because it has been so said in the past; .. do not accept it because it is also in holy scriptures; .. but if you nd that it appeals to your sense of discrimination and conscience as being conducive to your bene t and happiness, then only accept it and live up to it.' Thus, according to the Hindu way of thought, a prophet will constantly counsel his generation, but will never compel. The combination of reason and revelation is responsible for the a000enity of religion and philosophy in Hinduism. Religion without philosophy tends to be dogmatic and superstitious. Philosophy without religion degenerates into dry intellectualism. 4
On Religious Tolerance
The fundamental tenet of Hinduism is as many minds, so many faiths. The Rigveda states, The Truth is one, and sages call it by various names.' The Upanishads declare that, Just as cows which are of varied hues yield the same white milk, all the di000berent paths lead to the same goal.' Lord Krishna says in the Bhagvad Gita, As men approach Me, so do I receive them. All paths lead to Me, O Arjuna.' Around 300 BC King Ashoka had this edict inscribed on his stone pillars: The king, beloved of the Gods, honors every form of religious faith, but considers no gift or honor so much as the increase of the substance of religion, whereof this is the root: to revere one's own faith and never to revile that of others. Whoever acts di000berently injures his own religion while he wrongs another's.' A great Hindu saint of the last century, Sri Ramakrishna, conducted a series of successful experiments with God realization, and came to the conclusion that the di000berent faiths are like di000berent tributaries which nally merge into the river and become one. In our own time, Mahatma Gandhi said, I believe in the fundamental truth of all great religions of the world. I believe that they are all God-given, and I believe that they were necessary for the people to whom these religions were revealed. And I believe that, if only we could all of us read the scriptures of the di000berent faiths from the standpoint of the followers of those faiths, we should nd that they were at the bottom all one and were all helpful to one another.' Mahatma Gandhi's concept of Hinduism certainly included the Vedas, but it also contained a broader vista. Without impairing the dignity of Hinduism, he saw no inconsistency in paying equal homage to the best of Islam, Christianity, Zoroastrianism and Judaism. Mahatma Gandhi's prayer book, Ashram Bhajanavali, contains Hindu, Buddhist, Islamic, Zoroastrian and Christian Prayers. From early history, Hindus have been known to shelter the persecuted eeing from other lands. They gave shelter to the early Christians and Jews who were eeing from perse5
cution and also to the Parsis, Zoroastrians being persecuted in Persia. Religious tolerance may be a politically correct term in today's context; however, Swami Bharati Krishna Tirtha disagrees. He says, I object to the word religious tolerance. You tolerate something that is injurious, according to your view. And when we talk about tolerating other religions, it means that we dismiss beforehand all those other religions as being wicked or unrighteous, but which we have the great magnanimity, the great breadth of mind, to tolerate! That very word tolerate [used in this context] is an objectionable word; it is an insult.' This is the tradition of Hinduism reviling no religion and honoring truth, wherever it may come from and whatever garb it may wear. Hinduism does not believe in horizontal conversion, that is, switching from one formal faith to another. In contrast, Hinduism believes that real religious conversion is vertical which means striving to become a better person. If the heart is not converted, conversion of faith is of no avail. A conversation between C. Bharati Swami and an American tourist in 1953, sets forth the correct Hindu attitude towards conversion. `Why must it be,' impatiently demanded an earnest foreign tourist, `that you will not convert other peoples to Hinduism? You have such a beautiful religion, and yet you keep so many struggling souls out of it. If you say `yes' I will be the rst to become a Hindu!' `But why' came the counter question, `do you want to change your religion? What is wrong with your faith?' Taken aback, but not daunted, the tourist said, `I cannot say what is wrong, but it has not given me satisfaction.' `Indeed, it is unfortunate,' was the reply, `but tell me honestly whether you have given it a real chance. Have you fully understood your religion and lived according to it? Have you been a true follower and yet found the religion wanting?' `I am afraid I cannot say that, Sir.' `Then we advise you to go back and be a true follower of your faith rst; live truly by the word of the Lord, and if even then you feel unful lled, it will be time to consider what 6
should be done.' `Then, Sir', exclaimed the tourist, `your religion would inspire a Christian a better Christian, a Muslim a better Muslim and a Buddhist a better Buddhist. This day I have discovered yet another grand aspect of Hinduism! What you must change is not your faith but your life'.'
Brahman: Ultimate Reality
One of the things that greatly impressed our ancestors was transient nature of things and beings. Of every subjective and objective experience, it may truly be said, Even this shall pass away.' Our ancestors wondered whether change itself is the ultimate reality, or an unchanging essence is the ground of all changes? Just as the later Greek philosophers, Hindu sages rst hoped to answer this question by analysis of external nature. But they found that the problem of ultimate reality cannot be solved through the study of the visible outer universe. Other seekers directed their attention to the inner world within man himself. By means of self-control and concentration they discovered that the realm of the mind is in nitely more real and more deep than the realm of gross physical matter. The ultimate reality they discovered is known to us as Brahman and the symbol for Brahman is AUM. The word Brahman comes from the root brh' with two meanings: to increase' and to nourish.' Thus, it literally means that which is big.' There is no higher degree of the superlative with which it may be compared. Big' means it takes up all the space; it has nowhere to go because it is everywhere. Brahman never diminishes. Being the biggest, it contains everything else. It is larger than space and not limited by time. It is the reality of existence and non-existence alike. Brahman is beyond speech. Plato comprehended this when he said he would never try to put the highest truth in writing because it cannot be done. The Absolute is without shape and form and without beginning or end. The Universal Spirit is not considered either male or female, and is referred to by the impersonal pronoun, Tat, 7
meaning That. The one statement that encompasses all of Vedanta is Tat Tvam Asi meaning thou art That, as well as you are that eternal Truth and you need not look around you to nd God. In the Upanishads, there is an illuminating story about a young boy who asked his father for proof that the Absolute, which is not visible, really exists. The father asked his son to bring a fruit from the mighty banyan tree, and to break it open. The young boy split the fruit and found a tiny seed within. But when he split the seed he found nothing inside the seed. The father explained that inside the seed is something invisible to the eye, out of which the mighty banyan tree grows. It may not be seen, but it exists; we know it does, because of its e000bects. As a matter of fact, we are thinking of the unthinkable, describing the indescribable and seeking to know the unknowable. That is why our speech falters; it is inadequate and often contradictory. Thus, the nature of this reality is such that it cannot be directly and immediately comprehended, except by those who have chosen to ful ll certain conditions, making themselves loving, pure in heart, and pure in spirit. Self puri cation, self control and meditation are the means of preparing the mind for Vicara, an enquiry into the nature of Truth. Vicara is in the form of Sravana, Manana and Nididhyasana. Sravana refers to hearing of the Truth from the Sruti. Manana refers to re ection upon what is heard, and Nididhyasana means contemplation of the Truth. In the past many saints such as Gautama Buddha, Sri Ramakrishna and Adi Sankaracharya have realized Brahman. I believe that many saints of our time such as Sri Aurobindo and Ramana Maharshi have also realized Brahman. We, the members of the human family, are not all philosophers. Only a highly quali ed spiritual aspirant can attain an understanding of Brahman and meditate upon it. For the rest of us, the approach to Brahman lies through the personal God, the Isvara. We want something which we can touch and feel; something which we can see; something before which we can kneel. It does not matter whether it is a book, an empty 8
building or a building inhabited by numerous gures. A book will satisfy some, an empty building will satisfy others, while yet others will not be satis ed unless they see something visible inhabiting the building. The Brahman is transcendental meaning beyond the senses; Isvara is immanent meaning all pervading or omnipresent. The Brahman is often called Nirguna or attribute-less, while Isvara is Saguna or with attributes. A high degree of symbolism has evolved to explain the attributes and qualities of the Absolute to the layman. Diverse iconographical features are depicted for the various deities at di000berent times, depending on the roles they perform.
Many Gods or One God?
Usually a newcomer to Hinduism is confused about many Gods and idol worship. Hindu sages have not given di000berent Gods to posterity; they have only given us di000berent concepts of the same Godhead, taking into consideration the limitations and emotional demands of the human mind and intellect. An idol is like the ag of a country. The ag is not the country, but it represents the country; therefore, the countrymen have an emotional attachment to the ag itself. Similarly, an idol is a symbol of God. The mind cannot worship in abstraction. Hinduism states that an individual may worship God in any form they like. The form is not important; the name is not to be debated; it is the intensity of devotion to God that matters. It is the attitude of worship, called Bhakti in Sanskrit, that is of real consequence. Worshiping an idol in the tradition of Hinduism does not mean we are worshiping that inanimate object as God, but it means that we are worshiping that omnipresent Divinity in the form of an icon before us. We are worshiping God in the idol and not the idol as God. Gods and goddesses of the Hindu Pantheon are shown with several arms, faces, weapons and superhuman qualities. This is done to show the Ultimate to be above all human qualities. 9
The active' Isvara is responsible for the creation, sustenance and ultimate re-absorption of the visible universe. The Trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva are three aspects of Isvara responsible for the three functions. The energy needed to carry out the respective functions became personi ed in the Goddesses Sarasvati, Lakshmi and Parvati. Sarasvati is the Goddess of wisdom and learning. She holds the Veena, the embodiment of music and rhythm, in the cosmic universe. Lakshmi is the consort of Vishnu. She brings prosperity and grace to the human race. Parvati is the consort of Shiva, prodding us towards the path of righteousness. Ganesha and Kartikeya are two sons of Shiva and Parvati. In order to save the pious from the evil forces, Vishnu and Lakshmi incarnate on this earth from time to time, for example as Rama and Sita, and Krishna and Radha (Chart 2). Much of Hindu mythology revolves around the Deities shown in this chart. Whatever form of the supreme is adopted for worship, they are all di000berent forms of the same Godhead. Truth is one, but sages call it by di000berent names. These names, honored and worshiped by various religions, are but symbols which enable nite minds to grasp the in nite. Just as all rainwater nally ows into the ocean, so does all worship, o000bered to any Deity, ultimately reach the Supreme. What is needed is a loyalty to one's own ideals and a positive respect, not mere toleration, for the ideals of others. All of us approach one God by various names, such as Isvara, Rama, Krishna, Jehovah, Allah, God, and so on. The Allah of Islam is the same as the God of Christians and the Isvara of Hindus. The God of Gandhi cannot be di000berent from the God of Mother Theresa. The names do not indicate individuality but indicate attributes. The common man has tried in his humble way to describe almighty God by giving Him attributes, though He is above all attributes indescribable, inconceivable and immeasurable. He is one and yet many. He is smaller than an atom, and bigger than the Himalayas. He is contained even in a drop of ocean, yet not even the seven seas can encompass Him. Pure reason is pow10
11 Matsya Varaha
Kurma
Sarasvati
Brahma
Vamana
Nrisimha
Lakshmi
Parasurama
Rama
Mahesh Parvati
Krishna
(DASAVATARA)
Vishnu
Isvara
BRAHMAN
Chart 3: The Deities
Buddha
(Yet to come)
Kalki
Kartikeya
Ganesh
erless to know Him. Living faith in God means acceptance of the brotherhood of mankind. It also means equal respect for all religions.
Many Paths
Due to the freedom of intellectual inquiry, we nd a variety of views within Hinduism. According to Mahatma Gandhi, belief in one God is the corner-stone of all religions. But I do not foresee a time when there would be only one religion on earth in practice. In theory, since there is only one God, there can only be one religion. But in practice, no two persons I have known have had an identical conception of God. Therefore, there will perhaps always be di000berent religions answering to di000berent temperaments and even climactic conditions.' Hinduism believes that the Supreme Being may be approached through several paths, such as Jnana (knowledge), Bhakti (devotion), Nishkama Karma (sel ess action) and Raja Yoga (meditation). In a lighter vein, the rst three have been referred to as www wisdom, worship and work. In fact the path trodden by the seeker may be a combination of two or more of these disciplines, depending upon individual choice in consonance with temperament, aptitude and attitude. All paths, as long as they are based on righteousness, love, truth, and non-violence, are acceptable according to the Hindu way of life. In the Bhagvad Gita, Sri Krishna says, You have choice over your action but not over the results thereof. Do not [take yourself to] be the author of the results of action; do not be attached to inaction.' Overcoming laziness and indifference, we are exhorted to work. Karma Yoga refers to the performance of action with the attitude that all results are shaped by the laws of the Lord. By cultivating this attitude, we no longer su000ber the sorrow and regret that arise when the result of our action falls short of our expectations. Sri Krishna further says, Strive constantly to serve the welfare of the world; by devotion to sel ess work a man attains the supreme goal of life.' 12
There are six main obstacles or vices which could detract us from performing the right action: lust, anger, greed, infatuation, vanity, and jealousy. To overcome these, one should practice some of the essential virtues taught to us in our epics Satyam meaning truth, Ahmisa meaning non-violence, and Vairagya meaning the detachment from desires.
Di000berent Philosophies
There are various philosophies of Hinduism that attempt to address the central theme of the relationships among God, soul, and matter. The schools of philosophies are divided into two major categories orthodox or theistic, and heterodox or atheistic. The former believe in the Vedas as the primary authority while the latter do not. Three major schools in the latter group are Charvaka, Buddhist and Jain. There are six schools in the rst group Nyaya, Vaisesika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimansa and Vedanta. The most popular among these is Vedanta with its own schools Dvaita meaning Dualistic, Vishishtadvaita meaning Quali ed Non-Dualistic and Advaita meaning Non-Dualistic (Chart 3). The Advaita school believes that God is both the e000ecient and the material cause of the world, much like the spider who creates the web out of himself. Soul is not di000berent from God. The Dvaita school believes that there are di000berences between (1) God and Soul, (2) Soul and Soul, (3) God and matter, (4) Soul and matter, (5) one material thing and another. God is the e000ecient cause of the world and not its material cause. The example of a potter making the pot from clay is given here. Soul is saved by the knowledge that it is dependent upon and is under the control of God. The Vishishtadvaita school believes that there are three ultimate realities: God, Soul, and matter. Of these, God alone is independent reality, while the other two are dependent upon Him. God is the Soul of souls and of nature. He is the supreme moral governor and redeemer.
13
14
Nyaya Sankhya
Dualistic (Dvaita)
Vaisesika
Orthodox Theistic (Astik a)
Qualified Non-Dualistic (Vishisht advaita)
(Advaita )
Mimansa Vedanta
Non-dualistic
Yoga
Schools of Philosophies
Chart 3
Charvaka
Buddhist
heterodox Atheistic (Nastika)
Jaina
Oneness of Creation
Once Mahatma Gandhi was asked to de ne the essence of Hinduism. They argued, we have no simple Kalma that we nd in Islam, nor do we have 3-16 John of the Bible.' After some re ection, Mahatma Gandhi said that he regarded the rst Mantra of Isopanishad (one of the Upanishads) as containing the essence of Hinduism. This mantra is divided into four parts or gems. The rst part is, All this, whatsoever moves in this universe, including those that move not, is indwelt or pervaded or enveloped or clothed by the Lord.' The other three parts are corollaries to the rst part. Thus, God is everywhere. We search for Him in vain in temples, churches and mosques, and do not nd Him. We have looked everywhere but have forgotten to look in our own hearts. Lord Krishna says in the Bhagvad Gita, O Arjuna, Isvara abides in the hearts of all beings.' Eknath Easwaran says, When we discover that the Lord of Love is within us, we have entered into the state of joy and security which Jesus calls the kingdom of heaven within.' But the Divinity cannot be restricted to one individual, to a group, or to a geographic region. God is everywhere. Based on the unifying idea of this mantra, the spirit of Hinduism has grown so large that it embraces everyone and everything. From Atharvaveda, we learn, The whole world is one nest.' We may belong to di000berent countries and cultures, races and religions, yet we all dwell in the same house. We must learn to live happily together. From Kathopanishad, we learn, Let us share and enjoy together.' What nationality is the Sun? Russian or American? What color is the air? Black, Brown or White? What is the religion of water? Hinduism, Christianity, Islam? Which class does the Earth belong to? Lower class or upper class? Which race does space belong to? The human race? All ve essential elements of Nature are universal owned by no one, enjoyed by everyone. Nature is God's gift to mankind. Let us share it and enjoy it together. Let us preserve it and protect it together. 15
We may wear di000berent skins, we may speak di000berent tongues, we may think in di000berent shades, yet we are linked and locked together. The whole world is one big Family.' Born on the same planet, gazing at the same stars, living for the same purpose, we are one family. The Earth is our home. God is everywhere and in everyone; therefore, our love for God must translate into our love for fellow human beings. This led the Vedic sage to proclaim, May I be able to look upon all beings with the eye of a friend.' This love for our fellow beings is conveyed in the Upanishadic prayer, May all be happy. May all be free of disease. May all realize what is good. May none be subject to misery.' As a further step in the spiritual evolution, Isopanishad in a later Mantra declares, When to the seeker, all beings have become one in his own Self, how shall he feel deluded thereafter? What grief can there be to him who sees oneness everywhere?' If God is all, then all living beings, not just humans, must be sacred, and no injury should be caused to any living being. The highest value is non-violence. The implied reverence to plants, trees and animals from time immemorial, has made a Hindu give spiritual emphasis to ecology and the environment considered contemporary issues. Eknath Easwaran states, It is an urgent need of our time to recognize the unity of all forms of life, and the ultimate relationship between water, earth, air, plants and all creatures .. Salvation, self-realization, nirvana, moksha these are just di000berent words for the same discovery of the unity of all life. This is what we have come into this life to accomplish and until we accomplish this, we have not attained ful llment.'
Who is a Hindu?
Balgangadhar Tilak once said, One who believes that Truths given in the Vedas are self evident and eternal, is a Hindu.' Some say, One who says I am a Hindu is a Hindu.' There are many opinions regarding the core beliefs. The following are the underlying beliefs common among Hindus.
16
1. Hindus believe in reincarnation, meaning the evolution through many births until all karmas have been resolved, and moksha meaning spiritual knowledge and liberation from the cycle of rebirth. No one will be eternally deprived of this destiny. 2. Hindus believe in karma, the law of cause and e000bect by which each individual creates his own destiny by his thoughts, words and deeds. 3. Hindus believe in a one, all-pervasive Supreme Being who is both immanent and transcendent. 4. Hindus believe that the universe undergoes endless cycles of creation, preservation and dissolution. 5. Hindus believe that all life is sacred, to be loved and revered, and therefore they practice non-violence. 6. Hindus believe that no single religion provides the only way to salvation above all others, but that all genuine religious paths are facets of God's pure love and light, deserving respect and understanding. Ahimsa paramo Dharma Non-violence is the greatest of laws' is perhaps Hinduism's greatest contribution to mankind. Mahatma Gandhi used this as the cornerstone of the Indian Independence struggle in the rst half of this century. Since then, oppressed people all over the world have adopted it or drawn hope from it. The Reverend Martin Luther King in the United States and South Africa's Nelson Mandela adopted Mahatma Gandhi's teachings to achieve their own goals. Swami Vivekananda said, Thus the whole object of the system is by constant struggle to become perfect, to become divine, to reach God and see God, and this reaching God, seeing God, becoming perfect, `even as the Father in Heaven is perfect,' constitutes the religion of the Hindus.' This, in a nutshell, is the crux of Hinduism. It is a religion, a way of life, a belief, that o000bers paths of spiritual development and 17
exploration of the Ultimate Reality that aims at realization of and union with the Ultimate Truth.
Selected Readings
1. Bharati Krishna Tirtha, Swami. Sanatana Dharma. Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1991. 2. Bhashyanand, Swami. From the Unreal to the Real. Chicago, IL, Vivekanand Vedanta Society, 1986. 3. Chinmayananda, Swami. Self Unfoldment. Langhorne, PA, Chinmaya Publications, 1992. 4. Chinmayananda, Swami. The Holy Geeta. Langhorne, PA, Chinmaya Publications, 1980. 5. Dayanand, Swami. The Teaching of the Bhagvad Gita. New Delhi, Vision Books, 1989. 6. Dayanand, Swami. The Purpose of Prayer. Saylorsburg, PA, Arsha Vidya Gurukulam, 1991. 7. Easwaran, Eknath. The Bhagavad Gita for Daily Living. Tomales, CA, Nilgiri Press, 1992. 8. Easwaran, Eknath. Dialogue with Death. Tomales, CA, Nilgiri Press, 1992. 9. Gandhi, M.K. Ashram Bhajanavali. Ahmedabad, Navjivan Publishing House, 1922. 10. Gandhi, M.K. My God. Ahmedabad, Navjivan Publishing House, 1962. 11. Gandhi, M.K. The Essence of Hindusim. Ahmedabad, Navjivan Publishing House, 1987. 12. Gandhi, M.K. Discourses on The Gita. Ahmedabad, Navjivan Publishing House, 1960. 13. Jyotirmayanand, Swami. Srimad Bhagvad Gita. Miami, FL, Yoga Research Foundation, 1986. 18
14. Klostermaier, Klaus. A Survey of Hinduism. Albany, NY, State University of New York Press, 1989. 15. Krishnamurthy, V. Hinduism for the Next Generation. New Delhi, Wiley Eastern Ltd., 1992. 16. Lal, R.B. Religion in the Light of Reason and Science. Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1978. 17. Mahadevan, T.M.P. Outlines of Hinduism. Bombay, Chetan Limited, 1971; also available from, Durham, NC, Acorn Press. 18. Modi, B.K. Hinduism, the Universal Truth. New Delhi, Brijbasi Printers Private Ltd., 1993. 19. Nair, N.T. Ma, Who is a Hindu? Panther Publishers, Banglore, 1991. 20. Narayan, R.K. The Ramayana. New Delhi, Vision Books, 1988. 21. Nathan, R.S. (compiler), Symbolism in Hinduism. Bombay, Central Chinmaya Mission Trust, 1983. 22. Nikhilananda, Swami. Self-Knowledge. Madras, Sri Ramakrishna Math, 1947. 23. Parthasarathy, A. Vedanta Treatise. Bombay, Vedanta Life Institute, 1984. 24. Rajagopalachari, C. Bhagavad-Gita. Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1982. 25. Rajagopalachari, C. Mahabharata. Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1968. 26. Ranganathananda, Swami. The Message of the Upanisads. Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1990. 27. Shivanandji, Swami. Hindu Dharma. (in Gujarati) Ahmedabad, Sastu Sahitya Mudranalay Trust, 1984. 19
28. Subramuniyaswami, Sivaya. Dancing with Siva. Concord, CA, Himalayan Academy, 1993. 29. Vedanta Concepts. Los Altos, CA, Chinmaya Publications (West), 1984. 30. Vidyatmananda, Swami. (Ed.), What Religion is In the words of Swami Vivekananda. Calcutta, Advaita Ashrama, 1992. 31. Vivekananda, Swami. Hinduism. Madras, Sri Ramakrishna Math, 1991. 32. Way to Peace. Madras, Sri Ramakrishna Math, 1986. 33. Yatiswarananda, Swami. Universal Prayers. Madras, Sri Ramakrishna Math, 1977. 34. Yoganand, Paramhansa. The Bhagvad Gita. Los Angeles, CA, Self Realization Fellowship, 1996.
20
Contents What is Hinduism?
1
The Scriptures
2
No Dogmatism: Freedom to Think
4
On Religious Tolerance
5
Brahman: Ultimate Reality
7
Many Gods or One God?
9
Many Paths
12
Di000berent Philosophies
13
Oneness of Creation
15
Who is a Hindu?
16
Selected Readings
18
An Introduction to Hinduism What is Hinduism?
The word Hindu' does not occur in the Vedas, the revelations of this religion; rather, it derives its name from the river Sindhu in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent Sindh, now in Pakistan. At the time of Alexander the Great, the Greeks and the Persians mispronounced the name of the inhabitants of the country to the East of the river Sindhu as Hindus; thus, the religion of these inhabitants became known as Hinduism. Others called the Sindhu river, Indus; hence the origin of the words India and Indians. The correct nomenclature for Hindusim is the Vedic Religion or Sanatana Dharma. The word Sanatana means Eternal in Sanskrit and the word Dharma, although rather complex, basically means religion. Sanatana Dharma is a religion based on eternal principles and values of life. Buddhism, Christianity and Islam are all religions founded by individuals. The dates of their inception are well established and their authors are known. No such dates or founder can be identi ed for Hinduism. It has grown and evolved naturally, and therefore remains gloriously unde ned. Sanatana Dharma also means it is without a beginning or end. Inasmuch as Hinduism began with the world, continues to exist, and will only end with the world itself, it is truly eternal.
Hinduism - A Way of Life
Hinduism is not merely a religion. It is more appropriate to call it a fellowship of religions because of its liberal absorption of the faiths of others. Hinduism is a way of life. It deeply permeates the life of every Hindu from the moment of birth, be he a believer or a non-believer, a scholar or an illiterate. An atheist is not precluded from being a Hindu; hell is not envisioned for the agnostic. Hinduism accepts the reality that there are varying intellectual and spiritual levels in each one of us; hence, we may strive to obtain the same goal, but follow di000berent paths. 1
Hinduism o000bers di000berent religious approaches to persons of di000berent aptitudes, depending on whether one is a philosopher or a technician, a mystic or a person of action, an intellectual or a simple person of faith. Hinduism allows each one of us to be guided by our individual spiritual experience. The Sanskrit term for this is Adhikaribheda.
The Scriptures
The Vedas are the revealed scriptures of this religion and are written in Sanskrit. The Scriptures are divided into two groups: revelations (Sruti) and tradition (Smriti). The Vedas are considered to be the primary authority, while the Smriti texts are deemed secondary (Chart 1). The Vedas literally mean knowledge,' which is believed to be eternal, valid for all time and ages. By tradition, they have been passed down by sages and rishis. The Vedas are four in number: Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda. Each Veda text is divided into three parts: Karma Kanda, Upasana Kanda and Vedanta (also called the Upanishads). The Upanishads contain the essence of Hindu philosophy and mysticism. The secondary texts are further divided into three groups: Laws, Epics and the Puranas. The three major law texts are: Manu smriti, Yajnavalkya smriti and Parasar smriti. These laws can be modi ed or adapted to the needs of an age. Two major Epics or Itihasas are Ramayana and Mahabharata. The former has been dated around 2300 BC and the latter around 1400 BC. Mahabharata contains the famous dialogue between Lord Sri Krishna and Prince Arjuna, called the Bhagvad Gita. The Bhagvad Gita, the Divine Song, is the gist of Hindu philosophy. It is a primary text considered a part of Vedanta. The epics teach the greatest of truths in a story form. Stories from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata are related in gatherings, big and small, throughout India. They are known even to the most illiterate Hindu, and have been handed down through the ages by word of mouth. From these stories, people have learned the rules and the codes of ideal conduct for 2
3 LAWS
SAMAVEDA
VISHNU SHIVA BHAGVATA
PARASAR
ATHARVAVEDA
NARADA
PURANAS
(SMRITI)
TRADITION
BRAHMANDA MATSYA
GARUDA KURMA
VAMANA
SKANDA
VARAHA LINGA BRAHMAVAIVARTA BHAVISYA AGNI MARKANDEYA
BHAGVAD GITA
MAHABHARATA
EPICS
ITIHASA
RAMAYANA
UPANISADS (VEDANTA)
YAJURVEDA
YAJNAVALKYA
BRAHMA PADMA
MANU
RIGVEDA
VEDAS (Knowledge)
REVELATION (SRUTI)
Chart 1 RELIGIOUS LITERATURE
man and woman, patrician and plebeian. The Puranas are eighteen in number, the most popular one being the Bhagvata Purana. Vedic teachings were related orally. The Vedas had been in existence for many centuries prior to Vyasa, who only classi ed the Vedas into four parts. He was the compiler of the Vedas, rather than its author. Hindu mythology revolves around Vedic Gods, the two Epics, and the Puranas.
No Dogmatism: Freedom to Think
Though Hinduism accepts the authority of the Vedas, it does not believe in a dogma and rejects the exclusive claim of even a highly evolved individual to a monopoly on Truth. Intelligent and critical inquiry is one of the canons of scriptural interpretation recognized by Hinduism. The Rigveda states, Let noble thoughts come to us from every side.' A vivid example of this attitude is found in the Bhagvad Gita. Lord Krishna says to his disciple Arjuna at the end of his teaching, Thus has the wisdom, the secret of all secrets, been declared to you by me; having re ected over it fully, then act, as you choose to act,' (Chapter 18, Verse 63). In accord with this ideal, Lord Buddha advised prince of Kosaldesh, Do not accept what I have said to you because it has been so said in the past; .. do not accept it because it is also in holy scriptures; .. but if you nd that it appeals to your sense of discrimination and conscience as being conducive to your bene t and happiness, then only accept it and live up to it.' Thus, according to the Hindu way of thought, a prophet will constantly counsel his generation, but will never compel. The combination of reason and revelation is responsible for the a000enity of religion and philosophy in Hinduism. Religion without philosophy tends to be dogmatic and superstitious. Philosophy without religion degenerates into dry intellectualism. 4
On Religious Tolerance
The fundamental tenet of Hinduism is as many minds, so many faiths. The Rigveda states, The Truth is one, and sages call it by various names.' The Upanishads declare that, Just as cows which are of varied hues yield the same white milk, all the di000berent paths lead to the same goal.' Lord Krishna says in the Bhagvad Gita, As men approach Me, so do I receive them. All paths lead to Me, O Arjuna.' Around 300 BC King Ashoka had this edict inscribed on his stone pillars: The king, beloved of the Gods, honors every form of religious faith, but considers no gift or honor so much as the increase of the substance of religion, whereof this is the root: to revere one's own faith and never to revile that of others. Whoever acts di000berently injures his own religion while he wrongs another's.' A great Hindu saint of the last century, Sri Ramakrishna, conducted a series of successful experiments with God realization, and came to the conclusion that the di000berent faiths are like di000berent tributaries which nally merge into the river and become one. In our own time, Mahatma Gandhi said, I believe in the fundamental truth of all great religions of the world. I believe that they are all God-given, and I believe that they were necessary for the people to whom these religions were revealed. And I believe that, if only we could all of us read the scriptures of the di000berent faiths from the standpoint of the followers of those faiths, we should nd that they were at the bottom all one and were all helpful to one another.' Mahatma Gandhi's concept of Hinduism certainly included the Vedas, but it also contained a broader vista. Without impairing the dignity of Hinduism, he saw no inconsistency in paying equal homage to the best of Islam, Christianity, Zoroastrianism and Judaism. Mahatma Gandhi's prayer book, Ashram Bhajanavali, contains Hindu, Buddhist, Islamic, Zoroastrian and Christian Prayers. From early history, Hindus have been known to shelter the persecuted eeing from other lands. They gave shelter to the early Christians and Jews who were eeing from perse5
cution and also to the Parsis, Zoroastrians being persecuted in Persia. Religious tolerance may be a politically correct term in today's context; however, Swami Bharati Krishna Tirtha disagrees. He says, I object to the word religious tolerance. You tolerate something that is injurious, according to your view. And when we talk about tolerating other religions, it means that we dismiss beforehand all those other religions as being wicked or unrighteous, but which we have the great magnanimity, the great breadth of mind, to tolerate! That very word tolerate [used in this context] is an objectionable word; it is an insult.' This is the tradition of Hinduism reviling no religion and honoring truth, wherever it may come from and whatever garb it may wear. Hinduism does not believe in horizontal conversion, that is, switching from one formal faith to another. In contrast, Hinduism believes that real religious conversion is vertical which means striving to become a better person. If the heart is not converted, conversion of faith is of no avail. A conversation between C. Bharati Swami and an American tourist in 1953, sets forth the correct Hindu attitude towards conversion. `Why must it be,' impatiently demanded an earnest foreign tourist, `that you will not convert other peoples to Hinduism? You have such a beautiful religion, and yet you keep so many struggling souls out of it. If you say `yes' I will be the rst to become a Hindu!' `But why' came the counter question, `do you want to change your religion? What is wrong with your faith?' Taken aback, but not daunted, the tourist said, `I cannot say what is wrong, but it has not given me satisfaction.' `Indeed, it is unfortunate,' was the reply, `but tell me honestly whether you have given it a real chance. Have you fully understood your religion and lived according to it? Have you been a true follower and yet found the religion wanting?' `I am afraid I cannot say that, Sir.' `Then we advise you to go back and be a true follower of your faith rst; live truly by the word of the Lord, and if even then you feel unful lled, it will be time to consider what 6
should be done.' `Then, Sir', exclaimed the tourist, `your religion would inspire a Christian a better Christian, a Muslim a better Muslim and a Buddhist a better Buddhist. This day I have discovered yet another grand aspect of Hinduism! What you must change is not your faith but your life'.'
Brahman: Ultimate Reality
One of the things that greatly impressed our ancestors was transient nature of things and beings. Of every subjective and objective experience, it may truly be said, Even this shall pass away.' Our ancestors wondered whether change itself is the ultimate reality, or an unchanging essence is the ground of all changes? Just as the later Greek philosophers, Hindu sages rst hoped to answer this question by analysis of external nature. But they found that the problem of ultimate reality cannot be solved through the study of the visible outer universe. Other seekers directed their attention to the inner world within man himself. By means of self-control and concentration they discovered that the realm of the mind is in nitely more real and more deep than the realm of gross physical matter. The ultimate reality they discovered is known to us as Brahman and the symbol for Brahman is AUM. The word Brahman comes from the root brh' with two meanings: to increase' and to nourish.' Thus, it literally means that which is big.' There is no higher degree of the superlative with which it may be compared. Big' means it takes up all the space; it has nowhere to go because it is everywhere. Brahman never diminishes. Being the biggest, it contains everything else. It is larger than space and not limited by time. It is the reality of existence and non-existence alike. Brahman is beyond speech. Plato comprehended this when he said he would never try to put the highest truth in writing because it cannot be done. The Absolute is without shape and form and without beginning or end. The Universal Spirit is not considered either male or female, and is referred to by the impersonal pronoun, Tat, 7
meaning That. The one statement that encompasses all of Vedanta is Tat Tvam Asi meaning thou art That, as well as you are that eternal Truth and you need not look around you to nd God. In the Upanishads, there is an illuminating story about a young boy who asked his father for proof that the Absolute, which is not visible, really exists. The father asked his son to bring a fruit from the mighty banyan tree, and to break it open. The young boy split the fruit and found a tiny seed within. But when he split the seed he found nothing inside the seed. The father explained that inside the seed is something invisible to the eye, out of which the mighty banyan tree grows. It may not be seen, but it exists; we know it does, because of its e000bects. As a matter of fact, we are thinking of the unthinkable, describing the indescribable and seeking to know the unknowable. That is why our speech falters; it is inadequate and often contradictory. Thus, the nature of this reality is such that it cannot be directly and immediately comprehended, except by those who have chosen to ful ll certain conditions, making themselves loving, pure in heart, and pure in spirit. Self puri cation, self control and meditation are the means of preparing the mind for Vicara, an enquiry into the nature of Truth. Vicara is in the form of Sravana, Manana and Nididhyasana. Sravana refers to hearing of the Truth from the Sruti. Manana refers to re ection upon what is heard, and Nididhyasana means contemplation of the Truth. In the past many saints such as Gautama Buddha, Sri Ramakrishna and Adi Sankaracharya have realized Brahman. I believe that many saints of our time such as Sri Aurobindo and Ramana Maharshi have also realized Brahman. We, the members of the human family, are not all philosophers. Only a highly quali ed spiritual aspirant can attain an understanding of Brahman and meditate upon it. For the rest of us, the approach to Brahman lies through the personal God, the Isvara. We want something which we can touch and feel; something which we can see; something before which we can kneel. It does not matter whether it is a book, an empty 8
building or a building inhabited by numerous gures. A book will satisfy some, an empty building will satisfy others, while yet others will not be satis ed unless they see something visible inhabiting the building. The Brahman is transcendental meaning beyond the senses; Isvara is immanent meaning all pervading or omnipresent. The Brahman is often called Nirguna or attribute-less, while Isvara is Saguna or with attributes. A high degree of symbolism has evolved to explain the attributes and qualities of the Absolute to the layman. Diverse iconographical features are depicted for the various deities at di000berent times, depending on the roles they perform.
Many Gods or One God?
Usually a newcomer to Hinduism is confused about many Gods and idol worship. Hindu sages have not given di000berent Gods to posterity; they have only given us di000berent concepts of the same Godhead, taking into consideration the limitations and emotional demands of the human mind and intellect. An idol is like the ag of a country. The ag is not the country, but it represents the country; therefore, the countrymen have an emotional attachment to the ag itself. Similarly, an idol is a symbol of God. The mind cannot worship in abstraction. Hinduism states that an individual may worship God in any form they like. The form is not important; the name is not to be debated; it is the intensity of devotion to God that matters. It is the attitude of worship, called Bhakti in Sanskrit, that is of real consequence. Worshiping an idol in the tradition of Hinduism does not mean we are worshiping that inanimate object as God, but it means that we are worshiping that omnipresent Divinity in the form of an icon before us. We are worshiping God in the idol and not the idol as God. Gods and goddesses of the Hindu Pantheon are shown with several arms, faces, weapons and superhuman qualities. This is done to show the Ultimate to be above all human qualities. 9
The active' Isvara is responsible for the creation, sustenance and ultimate re-absorption of the visible universe. The Trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva are three aspects of Isvara responsible for the three functions. The energy needed to carry out the respective functions became personi ed in the Goddesses Sarasvati, Lakshmi and Parvati. Sarasvati is the Goddess of wisdom and learning. She holds the Veena, the embodiment of music and rhythm, in the cosmic universe. Lakshmi is the consort of Vishnu. She brings prosperity and grace to the human race. Parvati is the consort of Shiva, prodding us towards the path of righteousness. Ganesha and Kartikeya are two sons of Shiva and Parvati. In order to save the pious from the evil forces, Vishnu and Lakshmi incarnate on this earth from time to time, for example as Rama and Sita, and Krishna and Radha (Chart 2). Much of Hindu mythology revolves around the Deities shown in this chart. Whatever form of the supreme is adopted for worship, they are all di000berent forms of the same Godhead. Truth is one, but sages call it by di000berent names. These names, honored and worshiped by various religions, are but symbols which enable nite minds to grasp the in nite. Just as all rainwater nally ows into the ocean, so does all worship, o000bered to any Deity, ultimately reach the Supreme. What is needed is a loyalty to one's own ideals and a positive respect, not mere toleration, for the ideals of others. All of us approach one God by various names, such as Isvara, Rama, Krishna, Jehovah, Allah, God, and so on. The Allah of Islam is the same as the God of Christians and the Isvara of Hindus. The God of Gandhi cannot be di000berent from the God of Mother Theresa. The names do not indicate individuality but indicate attributes. The common man has tried in his humble way to describe almighty God by giving Him attributes, though He is above all attributes indescribable, inconceivable and immeasurable. He is one and yet many. He is smaller than an atom, and bigger than the Himalayas. He is contained even in a drop of ocean, yet not even the seven seas can encompass Him. Pure reason is pow10
11 Matsya Varaha
Kurma
Sarasvati
Brahma
Vamana
Nrisimha
Lakshmi
Parasurama
Rama
Mahesh Parvati
Krishna
(DASAVATARA)
Vishnu
Isvara
BRAHMAN
Chart 3: The Deities
Buddha
(Yet to come)
Kalki
Kartikeya
Ganesh
erless to know Him. Living faith in God means acceptance of the brotherhood of mankind. It also means equal respect for all religions.
Many Paths
Due to the freedom of intellectual inquiry, we nd a variety of views within Hinduism. According to Mahatma Gandhi, belief in one God is the corner-stone of all religions. But I do not foresee a time when there would be only one religion on earth in practice. In theory, since there is only one God, there can only be one religion. But in practice, no two persons I have known have had an identical conception of God. Therefore, there will perhaps always be di000berent religions answering to di000berent temperaments and even climactic conditions.' Hinduism believes that the Supreme Being may be approached through several paths, such as Jnana (knowledge), Bhakti (devotion), Nishkama Karma (sel ess action) and Raja Yoga (meditation). In a lighter vein, the rst three have been referred to as www wisdom, worship and work. In fact the path trodden by the seeker may be a combination of two or more of these disciplines, depending upon individual choice in consonance with temperament, aptitude and attitude. All paths, as long as they are based on righteousness, love, truth, and non-violence, are acceptable according to the Hindu way of life. In the Bhagvad Gita, Sri Krishna says, You have choice over your action but not over the results thereof. Do not [take yourself to] be the author of the results of action; do not be attached to inaction.' Overcoming laziness and indifference, we are exhorted to work. Karma Yoga refers to the performance of action with the attitude that all results are shaped by the laws of the Lord. By cultivating this attitude, we no longer su000ber the sorrow and regret that arise when the result of our action falls short of our expectations. Sri Krishna further says, Strive constantly to serve the welfare of the world; by devotion to sel ess work a man attains the supreme goal of life.' 12
There are six main obstacles or vices which could detract us from performing the right action: lust, anger, greed, infatuation, vanity, and jealousy. To overcome these, one should practice some of the essential virtues taught to us in our epics Satyam meaning truth, Ahmisa meaning non-violence, and Vairagya meaning the detachment from desires.
Di000berent Philosophies
There are various philosophies of Hinduism that attempt to address the central theme of the relationships among God, soul, and matter. The schools of philosophies are divided into two major categories orthodox or theistic, and heterodox or atheistic. The former believe in the Vedas as the primary authority while the latter do not. Three major schools in the latter group are Charvaka, Buddhist and Jain. There are six schools in the rst group Nyaya, Vaisesika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimansa and Vedanta. The most popular among these is Vedanta with its own schools Dvaita meaning Dualistic, Vishishtadvaita meaning Quali ed Non-Dualistic and Advaita meaning Non-Dualistic (Chart 3). The Advaita school believes that God is both the e000ecient and the material cause of the world, much like the spider who creates the web out of himself. Soul is not di000berent from God. The Dvaita school believes that there are di000berences between (1) God and Soul, (2) Soul and Soul, (3) God and matter, (4) Soul and matter, (5) one material thing and another. God is the e000ecient cause of the world and not its material cause. The example of a potter making the pot from clay is given here. Soul is saved by the knowledge that it is dependent upon and is under the control of God. The Vishishtadvaita school believes that there are three ultimate realities: God, Soul, and matter. Of these, God alone is independent reality, while the other two are dependent upon Him. God is the Soul of souls and of nature. He is the supreme moral governor and redeemer.
13
14
Nyaya Sankhya
Dualistic (Dvaita)
Vaisesika
Orthodox Theistic (Astik a)
Qualified Non-Dualistic (Vishisht advaita)
(Advaita )
Mimansa Vedanta
Non-dualistic
Yoga
Schools of Philosophies
Chart 3
Charvaka
Buddhist
heterodox Atheistic (Nastika)
Jaina
Oneness of Creation
Once Mahatma Gandhi was asked to de ne the essence of Hinduism. They argued, we have no simple Kalma that we nd in Islam, nor do we have 3-16 John of the Bible.' After some re ection, Mahatma Gandhi said that he regarded the rst Mantra of Isopanishad (one of the Upanishads) as containing the essence of Hinduism. This mantra is divided into four parts or gems. The rst part is, All this, whatsoever moves in this universe, including those that move not, is indwelt or pervaded or enveloped or clothed by the Lord.' The other three parts are corollaries to the rst part. Thus, God is everywhere. We search for Him in vain in temples, churches and mosques, and do not nd Him. We have looked everywhere but have forgotten to look in our own hearts. Lord Krishna says in the Bhagvad Gita, O Arjuna, Isvara abides in the hearts of all beings.' Eknath Easwaran says, When we discover that the Lord of Love is within us, we have entered into the state of joy and security which Jesus calls the kingdom of heaven within.' But the Divinity cannot be restricted to one individual, to a group, or to a geographic region. God is everywhere. Based on the unifying idea of this mantra, the spirit of Hinduism has grown so large that it embraces everyone and everything. From Atharvaveda, we learn, The whole world is one nest.' We may belong to di000berent countries and cultures, races and religions, yet we all dwell in the same house. We must learn to live happily together. From Kathopanishad, we learn, Let us share and enjoy together.' What nationality is the Sun? Russian or American? What color is the air? Black, Brown or White? What is the religion of water? Hinduism, Christianity, Islam? Which class does the Earth belong to? Lower class or upper class? Which race does space belong to? The human race? All ve essential elements of Nature are universal owned by no one, enjoyed by everyone. Nature is God's gift to mankind. Let us share it and enjoy it together. Let us preserve it and protect it together. 15
We may wear di000berent skins, we may speak di000berent tongues, we may think in di000berent shades, yet we are linked and locked together. The whole world is one big Family.' Born on the same planet, gazing at the same stars, living for the same purpose, we are one family. The Earth is our home. God is everywhere and in everyone; therefore, our love for God must translate into our love for fellow human beings. This led the Vedic sage to proclaim, May I be able to look upon all beings with the eye of a friend.' This love for our fellow beings is conveyed in the Upanishadic prayer, May all be happy. May all be free of disease. May all realize what is good. May none be subject to misery.' As a further step in the spiritual evolution, Isopanishad in a later Mantra declares, When to the seeker, all beings have become one in his own Self, how shall he feel deluded thereafter? What grief can there be to him who sees oneness everywhere?' If God is all, then all living beings, not just humans, must be sacred, and no injury should be caused to any living being. The highest value is non-violence. The implied reverence to plants, trees and animals from time immemorial, has made a Hindu give spiritual emphasis to ecology and the environment considered contemporary issues. Eknath Easwaran states, It is an urgent need of our time to recognize the unity of all forms of life, and the ultimate relationship between water, earth, air, plants and all creatures .. Salvation, self-realization, nirvana, moksha these are just di000berent words for the same discovery of the unity of all life. This is what we have come into this life to accomplish and until we accomplish this, we have not attained ful llment.'
Who is a Hindu?
Balgangadhar Tilak once said, One who believes that Truths given in the Vedas are self evident and eternal, is a Hindu.' Some say, One who says I am a Hindu is a Hindu.' There are many opinions regarding the core beliefs. The following are the underlying beliefs common among Hindus.
16
1. Hindus believe in reincarnation, meaning the evolution through many births until all karmas have been resolved, and moksha meaning spiritual knowledge and liberation from the cycle of rebirth. No one will be eternally deprived of this destiny. 2. Hindus believe in karma, the law of cause and e000bect by which each individual creates his own destiny by his thoughts, words and deeds. 3. Hindus believe in a one, all-pervasive Supreme Being who is both immanent and transcendent. 4. Hindus believe that the universe undergoes endless cycles of creation, preservation and dissolution. 5. Hindus believe that all life is sacred, to be loved and revered, and therefore they practice non-violence. 6. Hindus believe that no single religion provides the only way to salvation above all others, but that all genuine religious paths are facets of God's pure love and light, deserving respect and understanding. Ahimsa paramo Dharma Non-violence is the greatest of laws' is perhaps Hinduism's greatest contribution to mankind. Mahatma Gandhi used this as the cornerstone of the Indian Independence struggle in the rst half of this century. Since then, oppressed people all over the world have adopted it or drawn hope from it. The Reverend Martin Luther King in the United States and South Africa's Nelson Mandela adopted Mahatma Gandhi's teachings to achieve their own goals. Swami Vivekananda said, Thus the whole object of the system is by constant struggle to become perfect, to become divine, to reach God and see God, and this reaching God, seeing God, becoming perfect, `even as the Father in Heaven is perfect,' constitutes the religion of the Hindus.' This, in a nutshell, is the crux of Hinduism. It is a religion, a way of life, a belief, that o000bers paths of spiritual development and 17
exploration of the Ultimate Reality that aims at realization of and union with the Ultimate Truth.
Selected Readings
1. Bharati Krishna Tirtha, Swami. Sanatana Dharma. Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1991. 2. Bhashyanand, Swami. From the Unreal to the Real. Chicago, IL, Vivekanand Vedanta Society, 1986. 3. Chinmayananda, Swami. Self Unfoldment. Langhorne, PA, Chinmaya Publications, 1992. 4. Chinmayananda, Swami. The Holy Geeta. Langhorne, PA, Chinmaya Publications, 1980. 5. Dayanand, Swami. The Teaching of the Bhagvad Gita. New Delhi, Vision Books, 1989. 6. Dayanand, Swami. The Purpose of Prayer. Saylorsburg, PA, Arsha Vidya Gurukulam, 1991. 7. Easwaran, Eknath. The Bhagavad Gita for Daily Living. Tomales, CA, Nilgiri Press, 1992. 8. Easwaran, Eknath. Dialogue with Death. Tomales, CA, Nilgiri Press, 1992. 9. Gandhi, M.K. Ashram Bhajanavali. Ahmedabad, Navjivan Publishing House, 1922. 10. Gandhi, M.K. My God. Ahmedabad, Navjivan Publishing House, 1962. 11. Gandhi, M.K. The Essence of Hindusim. Ahmedabad, Navjivan Publishing House, 1987. 12. Gandhi, M.K. Discourses on The Gita. Ahmedabad, Navjivan Publishing House, 1960. 13. Jyotirmayanand, Swami. Srimad Bhagvad Gita. Miami, FL, Yoga Research Foundation, 1986. 18
14. Klostermaier, Klaus. A Survey of Hinduism. Albany, NY, State University of New York Press, 1989. 15. Krishnamurthy, V. Hinduism for the Next Generation. New Delhi, Wiley Eastern Ltd., 1992. 16. Lal, R.B. Religion in the Light of Reason and Science. Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1978. 17. Mahadevan, T.M.P. Outlines of Hinduism. Bombay, Chetan Limited, 1971; also available from, Durham, NC, Acorn Press. 18. Modi, B.K. Hinduism, the Universal Truth. New Delhi, Brijbasi Printers Private Ltd., 1993. 19. Nair, N.T. Ma, Who is a Hindu? Panther Publishers, Banglore, 1991. 20. Narayan, R.K. The Ramayana. New Delhi, Vision Books, 1988. 21. Nathan, R.S. (compiler), Symbolism in Hinduism. Bombay, Central Chinmaya Mission Trust, 1983. 22. Nikhilananda, Swami. Self-Knowledge. Madras, Sri Ramakrishna Math, 1947. 23. Parthasarathy, A. Vedanta Treatise. Bombay, Vedanta Life Institute, 1984. 24. Rajagopalachari, C. Bhagavad-Gita. Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1982. 25. Rajagopalachari, C. Mahabharata. Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1968. 26. Ranganathananda, Swami. The Message of the Upanisads. Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1990. 27. Shivanandji, Swami. Hindu Dharma. (in Gujarati) Ahmedabad, Sastu Sahitya Mudranalay Trust, 1984. 19
28. Subramuniyaswami, Sivaya. Dancing with Siva. Concord, CA, Himalayan Academy, 1993. 29. Vedanta Concepts. Los Altos, CA, Chinmaya Publications (West), 1984. 30. Vidyatmananda, Swami. (Ed.), What Religion is In the words of Swami Vivekananda. Calcutta, Advaita Ashrama, 1992. 31. Vivekananda, Swami. Hinduism. Madras, Sri Ramakrishna Math, 1991. 32. Way to Peace. Madras, Sri Ramakrishna Math, 1986. 33. Yatiswarananda, Swami. Universal Prayers. Madras, Sri Ramakrishna Math, 1977. 34. Yoganand, Paramhansa. The Bhagvad Gita. Los Angeles, CA, Self Realization Fellowship, 1996.
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Born | 18 February 1836 Kamarpukur, Bengal Presidency, British India (present-day West Bengal, India) |
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Ramakrishna ParamahansaRamkṛiṣṇa Pôromôhongśa; 18 February 1836 – 16 August 1886),[1][2][3][4] born Ramakrishna 'Gadadhar' Chattopadhyay,[5] was an Indian Hindumystic and saint in 19th century Bengal.[6] Ramakrishna experienced spiritual ecstasies from a young age, and was influenced by several religious traditions, including devotion toward the goddess Kali, Tantra (shakta), Vaishnava (bhakti),[7] and Advaita Vedanta.[8][9] Reverence and admiration for him among Bengali elites led to Swami Vivekananda founding the Ramakrishna Math, which provides spiritual training for monastics and householder devotees and the Ramakrishna Mission to provide charity work and education.[10][11][12][13]
- 1Early life
- 1.4Formative religious practices and teachers
- 1.5Popularisation
- 2Practices and teachings
- 4Views and studies
- 4.2Psychoanalysis
Early life[edit]
Birth and childhood[edit]
Ramakrishna was born on 18 February 1836,[1] in the village of Kamarpukur, in the Hooghly district of West Bengal, into a very poor, pious, and orthodox Brahmin family.[14] Kamarpukur was untouched by the glamour of the city and contained rice fields, tall palms, royal banyans, a few lakes, and two cremation grounds. His parents were Khudiram Chattopadhyay and Chandramani Devi. According to his followers, Ramakrishna's parents experienced supernatural incidents and visions before his birth. In Gaya his father Khudiram had a dream in which Lord Gadadhara (a form of Vishnu), said that he would be born as his son. Chandramani Devi is said to have had a vision of light entering her womb from (Yogider Shiv Mandir)Shiva's temple.[15][16]
The family was devoted to Hindu God Rama, and male children of Khudiram and Chandramani were given names that started with Ram or Rama: Ramkumar, Rameswar, and Ramakrishna.[17] There has been some dispute about the origin of the name Ramakrishna, but there is '..evidence which proves beyond doubt that the name 'Ramakrishna' was given to him by his father..'[18] Ramakrishna confirmed this himself, as recorded in 'M's diaries, 'I was a pet child of my father. He used to call me Ramakrishnababu.'[19]
The small house at Kamarpukur where Ramakrishna lived (centre). The family shrine is on the left, birthplace temple on the right
Although Ramakrishna attended a village school with some regularity for 12 years,[20] he later rejected the traditional schooling saying that he was not interested in a 'bread-winning education'.[21] Kamarpukur, being a transit-point in well-established pilgrimage routes to Puri, brought him into contact with renunciates and holy men.[22] He became well-versed in the Puranas, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and the Bhagavata Purana, hearing them from wandering monks and the Kathaks—a class of men in ancient India who preached and sang the Purāṇas. He could read and write in Bengali.[20]
Ramakrishna describes his first spiritual ecstasy at the age of six: while walking along the paddy fields, a flock of white cranes flying against a backdrop of dark thunder clouds caught his vision. He reportedly became so absorbed by this scene that he lost outward consciousness and experienced indescribable joy in that state.[23][24] Ramakrishna reportedly had experiences of similar nature a few other times in his childhood—while worshipping the goddess Vishalakshi, and portraying god Shiva in a drama during Shivaratri festival. From his 10th or 11th year of school on, the trances became common, and by the final years of his life, Ramakrishna's samādhi periods occurred almost daily.[24] Early on, these experiences have been interpreted as epileptic seizures,[25][26][27][28] an interpretation which was rejected by Ramakrishna himself.[27][note 1]
Ramakrishna's father died in 1843, after which family responsibilities fell on his elder brother Ramkumar. This loss drew him closer to his mother, and he spent his time in household activities and daily worship of the household deities and became more involved in contemplative activities such as reading the sacred epics. When Ramakrishna was in his teens, the family's financial position worsened. Ramkumar started a Sanskrit school in (Jhama pukur lane )Kolkata and also served as a priest. Ramakrishna moved to Kolkata in 1852 with Ramkumar to assist in the priestly work.[30]
Priest at Dakshineswar Kali Temple[edit]
Dakshineswar Kāli Temple, where Ramakrishna spent a major portion of his adult life.
In 1855 Ramkumar was appointed as the priest of Dakshineswar Kali Temple, built by Rani Rashmoni—a rich woman of Kolkata who belonged to the kaivarta community.[31] Ramakrishna, along with his nephew Hriday, became assistants to Ramkumar, with Ramakrishna given the task of decorating the deity. When Ramkumar died in 1856, Ramakrishna took his place as the priest of the Kali temple.[32]
After Ramkumar's death Ramakrishna became more contemplative. He began to look upon the image of the goddess Kali as his mother and the mother of the universe. Ramakrishna reportedly had a vision of the goddess Kali as the universal Mother, which he described as '.. houses, doors, temples and everything else vanished altogether; as if there was nothing anywhere! And what I saw was an infinite shoreless sea of light; a sea that was consciousness. However far and in whatever direction I looked, I saw shining waves, one after another, coming towards me.'[33]
Marriage[edit]
Sarada Devi (1853–1920), wife and spiritual counterpart of Ramakrishna
Rumors spread to Kamarpukur that Ramakrishna had become unstable as a result of his spiritual practices at Dakshineswar. Ramakrishna's mother and his elder brother Rameswar decided to get Ramakrishna married, thinking that marriage would be a good steadying influence upon him—by forcing him to accept responsibility and to keep his attention on normal affairs rather than his spiritual practices and visions. Ramakrishna himself mentioned that they could find the bride at the house of Ramchandra Mukherjee in Jayrambati, three miles to the north-west of Kamarpukur. The five-year-old bride, Saradamani Mukhopadhyaya (later known as Sarada Devi) was found and the marriage was duly solemnised in 1859. Ramakrishna was 23 at this point, but the age difference was typical for 19th century rural Bengal.[34]They later spent three months together in Kamarpukur. Sarada Devi was fourteen while Ramakrishna was thirty-two. Ramakrishna became a very influential figure in Sarada's life, and she became a strong follower of his teachings. After the marriage, Sarada stayed at Jayrambati and joined Ramakrishna in Dakshineswar at the age of 18.[35]
By the time his bride joined him, Ramakrishna had already embraced the monastic life of a sannyasi; the marriage was never consummated. As a priest Ramakrishna performed the ritual ceremony—the Shodashi Puja (in his room )–where Sarada Devi was worshiped as the Divine Mother.[36] Ramakrishna regarded Sarada as the Divine Mother in person, addressing her as the Holy Mother, and it was by this name that she was known to Ramakrishna's disciples. Sarada Devi outlived Ramakrishna by 34 years and played an important role in the nascent religious movement.[37][38]
As a part of practicing a spiritual mood, called mādhurā bhavā sadhāna, Ramakrishna dressed and behave as a woman.[39] Disciple Mahendranath Gupta quotes the Master as follows:
How can a man conquer passion? He should assume the attitude of a woman. I spent many days as the handmaid of God. I dressed myself in women's clothes, put on ornaments and covered the upper part of my body with a scarf, just like a woman. With the scarf on I used to perform the evening worship before the image. Otherwise how could I have kept my wife with me for eight months? Both of us behaved as if we were the handmaid of the Divine Mother.[39]
Formative religious practices and teachers[edit]
While Ramakrisha was a temple priest at Dakshineswar, itinerant sadhus could come and stay for a while, practicing their particular mode of worship. Several of these people became Ramakrishna's teachers in the various schools[40] of Hinduism.[41] He had grown up practicing Bhakti (devotion) to Rama. His duties as priest at the Dakshineswar temple led him to practice worship of Mother Kali. Then, in
- 1861, Bhairavi Brahmani initiated Ramakrishna into Tantra,[42]
- 1864, Ramakrishna took up the practise of vātsalya bhāva under a Vaishnava guru Jatadhari,[43]
- 1865, Advaita Vedantist, Toto Puri initiated Ramakrishna into sannyasa,[44][45]
- 1866, Govinda Roy, a Hindu guru who practised Sufism, initiated Ramakrishna into Islam,[46]
- 1873, Ramakrishna practiced Christianity, and had the bible read to him.[47]
After more than a decade of sadhana in various religious paths, each culminating in the realization of God by that path, his personal practices settled and he is said to have remained in bhavamukha, a level of blissful shamdhi.[48] He would meditate in the Panchavati (a wooded and secluded area of the Dakshineswar Temple grounds), go to the Kali temple to offer flowers to the Mother, and wave incense to the assorted deities and religious figures, whose pictures hung in his room.[49]
Rama Bhakti[edit]
At some point in the period between his vision of Kali and his marriage, Ramakrishna practised dāsya bhāva,[note 2] during which he worshiped Rama with the attitude of Hanuman, who is considered to be the ideal devotee and servant of Rama. According to Ramakrishna, towards the end of this sadhana, he had a vision of Sita, the consort of Rama, merging into his body.[51][53]
Bhairavi Brahmani and Tantra[edit]
In 1861, Ramakrishna accepted Bhairavi Brahmani, an orange-robed, middle-aged female ascetic, as a teacher. She carried with her the Raghuvir Shila, a stone icon representing Ram and all Vaishnava deities.[7] She was thoroughly conversant with the texts of Gaudiya Vaishnavism and practised Tantra.[7] According to the Bhairavi, Ramakrishna was experiencing phenomena that accompany mahabhava, the supreme attitude of loving devotion towards the divine,[54] and quoting from the bhakti shastras, she said that other religious figures like Radha and Chaitanya had similar experiences.[55]
The Bhairavi initiated Ramakrishna into Tantra. Tantrism focuses on the worship of shakti and the object of Tantric training is to transcend the barriers between the holy and unholy as a means of achieving liberation and to see all aspects of the natural world as manifestations of the divine shakti.[56][57] Under her guidance, Ramakrishna went through sixty four major tantric sadhanas which were completed in 1863. For all the sixty four sadhana, he took only three days each to complete [58] He began with mantra rituals such as japa and purascarana and many other rituals designed to purify the mind and establish self-control. He later proceeded towards tantric sadhanas, which generally include a set of heterodox practices called vamachara (left-hand path), which utilise as a means of liberation, activities like eating of parched grain, fish and meat along with drinking of wine and sexual intercourse.[54] According to Ramakrishna and his biographers, Ramakrishna did not directly participate in the last two of those activities (some even say he didn't indulge in meat eating), all that he needed was a suggestion of them to produce the desired result.[54] Ramakrishna acknowledged the left-hand tantric path, though it had 'undesirable features', as one of the 'valid roads to God-realization', he consistently cautioned his devotees and disciples against associating with it.[59][60] The Bhairavi also taught Ramakrishna the kumari-puja, a form of ritual in which the Virgin Goddess is worshiped symbolically in the form of a young girl. Under the tutelage of the Bhairavi, Ramakrishna also learnt Kundalini Yoga.[54] The Bhairavi, with the yogic techniques and the tantra played an important part in the initial spiritual development of Ramakrishna.[5][61]
Vaishnava Bhakti[edit]
In 1864, Ramakrishna practised vātsalya bhāva under a Vaishnava guru Jatadhari.[62] During this period, he worshipped a metal image of Ramlālā (Rama as a child) in the attitude of a mother. According to Ramakrishna, he could feel the presence of child Rama as a living God in the metal image.[63][64]
Ramakrishna later engaged in the practice of madhura bhāva, the attitude of the Gopis and Radha towards Krishna.[51] During the practise of this bhava, Ramakrishna dressed himself in women's attire for several days and regarded himself as one of the Gopis of Vrindavan. According to Sri Ramakrishna, madhura bhava is one of the ways to root out the idea of sex, which is seen as an impediment in spiritual life.[65] According to Ramakrishna, towards the end of this sadhana, he attained savikalpa samadhi( god seen with form and qualities)—vision and union with Krishna.[66]
Ramakrishna visited Nadia, the home of Lord Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and Sri Nityananda Prabhu, the 15th-century founders of Bengali Gaudiya Vaishnava bhakti. According to Ramakrishna, he had an intense vision of two young boys merging into his body while he was crossing the river in a boat .[66] Earlier, after his vision of Kali, he is said to have cultivated the Santa bhava—the child attitude – towards Kali.[51]
Totapuri and Vedanta[edit]
The Panchavati and the hut where Ramakrishna performed his advaiticsadhana. The mud hut has been replaced by a brick one.
In 1865, Ramakrishna was initiated into sannyasa by Totapuri, an itinerant monk who trained Ramakrishna in Advaita Vedanta, the Hindu philosophy which emphasises non-dualism.[67][68]
Totapuri first guided Ramakrishna through the rites of sannyasa—renunciation of all ties to the world. Then he instructed him in the teaching of advaita—that 'Brahman alone is real, and the world is illusory; I have no separate existence; I am that Brahman alone.'[69] Under the guidance of Totapuri, Ramakrishna reportedly experienced nirvikalpa samadhi, which is considered to be the highest state in spiritual realisation.[70] He remained in that state of non-dual existence for six months without the least awareness of even his own body.
Totapuri stayed with Ramakrishna for nearly eleven months and instructed him further in the teachings of advaita. Ramakrishna said that this period of nirvikalpa samadhi came to an end when he received a command from the Mother Kali to 'remain in Bhavamukha; for the enlightenment of the people'. Bhavamukha being a state of existence intermediate between samādhi and normal consciousness.[71]
Islam and Christianity[edit]
According to Swami Saradananda's biography, in 1866 Govinda Roy, a Hindu guru who practised Sufism, initiated Ramakrishna into Islam, and he practiced Islam for three days. During this practice, Ramakrishna had a vision of a luminous figure, and Swami Nikhilananda's biography speculates that the figure was 'perhaps Mohammed'.[72][73][74] According to these accounts, Ramakrishna 'devoutly repeated the name of Allah, wore a cloth like the ArabMuslims, said their prayer five times daily, and felt disinclined even to see images of the Hindu gods and goddesses, much less worship them—for the Hindu way of thinking had disappeared altogether from my mind.'[75] After three days of practice he had a vision of a 'radiant personage with grave countenance and white beard resembling the Prophet and merging with his body'.[76]Kripal writes that this 'would have been a heretical experience through and through' for most Muslims.[72]
At the end of 1873 he started the practice of Christianity, when his devotee Shambhu Charan Mallik read the Bible to him. According to Swami Saradananda's biography, Ramakrishna was filled with Christian thoughts for days and no longer thought of going to the Kali temple. Ramakrishna described a vision in which a picture of the Madonna and Child became alive and he had a vision in which Jesus merged with his body. In his own room amongst other divine pictures was one of Christ, and he burnt incense before it morning and evening. There was also a picture showing Jesus Christ saving St Peter from drowning in the water.[66][77][78]
Popularisation[edit]
Ramakrishna in bhava samadhi at the house of Keshab Chandra Sen. He is seen supported by his nephew Hriday and surrounded by brahmo devotees.
Keshab Chandra Sen and the 'New Dispensation'[edit]
In 1875, Ramakrishna met the influential Brahmo Samaj leader Keshab Chandra Sen.[79][80] Keshab had accepted Christianity, and had separated from the Adi Brahmo Samaj. Formerly, Keshab had rejected idolatry, but under the influence of Ramakrishna he accepted Hindu polytheism and established the 'New Dispensation' (Nava Vidhan) religious movement, based on Ramakrishna's principles—'Worship of God as Mother', 'All religions as true' and 'Assimilation of Hindu polytheism into Brahmoism'.[81] Keshab also publicised Ramakrishna's teachings in the journals of New Dispensation over a period of several years,[82] which was instrumental in bringing Ramakrishna to the attention of a wider audience, especially the Bhadralok (English-educated classes of Bengal) and the Europeans residing in India.[83][84]
Following Keshab, other Brahmos such as Vijaykrishna Goswami started to admire Ramakrishna, propagate his ideals and reorient their socio-religious outlook. Many prominent people of Kolkata—Pratap Chandra Mazumdar, Shivanath Shastri and Trailokyanath Sanyal—began visiting him during this time (1871–1885). Mazumdar wrote the first English biography of Ramakrishna, entitled The Hindu Saint in the Theistic Quarterly Review (1879), which played a vital role in introducing Ramakrishna to Westerners like the German indologistMax Müller.[82] Newspapers reported that Ramakrishna was spreading 'Love' and 'Devotion' among the educated classes of Kolkata and that he had succeeded in reforming the character of some youths whose morals had been corrupt.[82]
Ramakrishna also had interactions with Debendranath Tagore, the father of Rabindranath Tagore, and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, a renowned social worker. He had also met Swami Dayananda.[79] Ramakrishna is considered one of the main contributors to the Bengali Renaissance.
Vivekananda[edit]
Among the Europeans who were influenced by Ramakrishna was Principal Dr. William Hastie of the Scottish Church College, Kolkata. In the course of explaining the word trance in the poem The Excursion by William Wordsworth, Hastie told his students that if they wanted to know its 'real meaning', they should go to 'Ramakrishna of Dakshineswar.' This prompted some of his students, including Narendranath Dutta (later Swami Vivekananda), to visit Ramakrishna.
Despite initial reservations, Vivekananda became Ramakrishna's most influential follower, popularizing a modern interpretation of Indian traditions which harmonised Tantra, Yoga and Advaita Vedanta. Vivekananda established the Ramakrishna order, which eventually spread its mission posts throughout the world. Monastic disciples, who renounced their family and became the earliest monks of the Ramakrishna order, included Rakhal Chandra Ghosh (Swami Brahmananda), Kaliprasad Chandra (Swami Abhedananda), Taraknath Ghoshal (Swami Shivananda), Sashibhushan Chakravarty (Swami Ramakrishnananda), Saratchandra Chakravarty (Swami Saradananda), Tulasi Charan Dutta (Swami Nirmalananda), Gangadhar Ghatak (Swami Akhandananda), Hari Prasana (Swami Vijnanananda) and others.
Other devotees and disciples[edit]
Some Monastic Disciples (L to R): Trigunatitananda, Shivananda, Vivekananda, Turiyananda, Brahmananda. Below Sadananda.
Mahendranath Gupta, a householder devotee and the author of Sri-Sri-Ramakrisna-kathamrta.
As his name spread, an ever-shifting crowd of all classes and castes visited Ramakrishna. Most of Ramakrishna's prominent disciples came between 1879–1885.[38] Apart from the early members who joined the Ramakrishna Order, his chief disciples consisted of:[64]
Swami Chinmayananda Books
- Grihasthas or The householders—Mahendranath Gupta, Girish Chandra Ghosh, Mahendra Lal Sarkar, Akshay Kumar Sen and others.
- A small group of women disciples including Gauri Ma and Yogin Ma. A few of them were initiated into sanyasa through mantra deeksha. Among the women, Ramakrishna emphasised service to other women rather than tapasya (practice of austerities).[85]Gauri Ma founded the Saradesvari Ashrama at Barrackpur, which was dedicated to the education and upliftment of women.[86]
In preparation for monastic life, Ramakrishna ordered his monastic disciples to beg their food from door to door without distinction of caste. He gave them the saffron robe, the sign of the Sanyasi, and initiated them with Mantra Deeksha.[87]
Last days[edit]
The disciples and devotees at Ramakrishna's funeral
In the beginning of 1885 Ramakrishna suffered from clergyman's throat, which gradually developed into throat cancer. He was moved to Shyampukur near Kolkata, where some of the best physicians of the time, including Dr. Mahendralal Sarkar, were engaged. When his condition aggravated he was relocated to a large garden house at Cossipore on 11 December 1885.[88]
During his last days, he was looked after by his monastic disciples and Sarada Devi. Ramakrishna was advised by the doctors to keep the strictest silence, but ignoring their advice, he incessantly conversed with visitors.[83] According to traditional accounts, before his death, Ramakrishna transferred his spiritual powers to Vivekananda[88] and reassured Vivekananda of his avataric status.[88][89] Ramakrishna asked Vivekananda to look after the welfare of the disciples, saying, 'keep my boys together'[90] and asked him to 'teach them'.[90] Ramakrishna also asked other monastic disciples to look upon Vivekananda as their leader.[88] Ramakrishna's condition gradually worsened, and he died in the early morning hours of 16 August 1886 at the Cossipore garden house. According to his disciples, this was mahasamadhi.[88] After the death of their master, the monastic disciples led by Vivekananda formed a fellowship at a half-ruined house at Baranagar near the river Ganges, with the financial assistance of the householder disciples. This became the first Math or monastery of the disciples who constituted the first Ramakrishna Order.[38]
Practices and teachings[edit]
Bhakti, Tantra, and God-realization[edit]
Ramakrishna's religious practice and worldview, contained elements of Bhakti, Tantra and Vedanta. Ramakrishna emphasised God-realisation, stating that 'To realize God is the one goal in life.'[91] Ramakrishna found that Hinduism, Christianity and Islam all move towards the same God or divine, though using different ways:[92] 'So many religions, so many paths to reach one and the same goal,' namely to experience God or Divine.[93] Ramakrishna further said, 'All scriptures - the Vedas, the Puranas, the Tantras - seek Him alone and no one else.' [94] The Vedic phrase 'Truth is one; only It is called by different names,'[95][note 3] became a stock phrase to express Ramakrishna's inclusivism.[92]
Ramakrishna preferred 'the duality of adoring a Divinity beyond himself to the self-annihilating immersion of nirvikalpa samadhi, and he helped 'bring to the realm of Eastern energetics and realization the daemonic celebration that the human is always between a reality it has not yet attained and a reality to which it is no longer limited.'[98] Ramakrishna is quoted in the Nikhilananda Gospel, 'The devotee of God wants to eat sugar, and not to become sugar.'[99]
Max Müller[note 4] portrayed Ramakrishna as, '..a Bhakta, a worshipper or lover of the deity, much more than a Gñânin or a knower.[101][102]Postcolonialliterary theoristGayatri Chakravorty Spivak wrote that Ramakrishna was a 'Bengali bhakta visionary' and that as a bhakta, 'he turned chiefly towards Kali.'[103]
IndologistHeinrich Zimmer was the first Western scholar to interpret Ramakrishna's worship of the Divine Mother as containing specifically Tantric elements.[104][105] Neeval also argued that tantra played a main role in Ramakrishna's spiritual development.[104]
The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna[edit]
The principal source for Ramakrishna's teaching is Mahendranath Gupta's Sri Sri Ramakrishna Kathamrita, which is regarded as a Bengali classic [106][107] and 'the central text of the tradition'. [108] Gupta used the pen name 'M', as the author of the Gospel. The text was published in five volumes from 1902 to 1932. Based on Gupta's diary notes, each of the five volumes purports to document Ramakrishna's life from 1882–1886.
The most popular English translation of the Kathamrita is The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna by Swami Nikhilananda. Nikhilananda's translation rearranged the scenes in the five volumes of the Kathamrita into a linear sequence.
Swami Nikhilananda worked with Margaret Woodrow Wilson, daughter of President Woodrow Wilson, who helped the swami to refine his literary style into 'flowing American English'. The mystic hymns were rendered into free verse by the American poet John Moffitt. Wilson and American mythology scholar Joseph Campbell helped edit the manuscript.[109][110]Aldous Huxley wrote in his Forward to the Gospel, '..'M' produced a book unique, so far as my knowledge goes, in the literature of hagiography. Never have the casual and unstudied utterances of a great religious teacher been set down with so minute detail.'[111]
Philosopher Lex Hixon writes that the Gospel of Ramakrishna is 'spiritually authentic' and a 'powerful rendering of the Kathamrita'.[112] Malcolm Mclean and Jeffrey Kripal both argue that the translation is unreliable,[113][114] though Kripal's interpretation is criticized by Hugh Urban.[115][need quotation to verify]
Style of teaching[edit]
Ramakrishna's teachings were imparted in rustic Bengali, using stories and parables.[5] These teachings made a powerful impact on Kolkata's intellectuals, despite the fact that his preachings were far removed from issues of modernism or national independence.[116]
Ramakrishna's primary biographers describe him as talkative. According to the biographers, Ramakrishna would reminisce for hours about his own eventful spiritual life, tell tales, explain Vedantic doctrines with extremely mundane illustrations, raise questions and answer them himself, crack jokes, sing songs, and mimic the ways of all types of worldly people, keeping the visitors enthralled.[87][117]
As an example of Ramakrishna's teachings and fun with his followers, here's a quote about his visit to an exhibition, “I once visited the MUSEUM [118] There was a display of fossils: living animals had turned into stone. Just look at the power of association! Imagine what would happen if you constantly kept the company of the holy.” Mani Mallick replied (laughing): “If you would go there again we could have ten to fifteen more years of spiritual instructions.”[119]
Ramakrishna used rusticcolloquialBengali in his conversations. According to contemporary reports, Ramakrishna's linguistic style was unique, even to those who spoke Bengali. It contained obscure local words and idioms from village Bengali, interspersed with philosophical Sanskrit terms and references to the Vedas, Puranas, and Tantras. For that reason, according to philosopher Lex Hixon, his speeches cannot be literally translated into English or any other language.[120] Scholar Amiya P. Sen argued that certain terms that Ramakrishna may have used only in a metaphysical sense are being improperly invested with new, contemporaneous meanings.[121]
Ramakrishna was skilled with words and had an extraordinary style of preaching and instructing, which may have helped convey his ideas to even the most skeptical temple visitors.[38] His speeches reportedly revealed a sense of joy and fun, but he was not at a loss when debating with intellectual philosophers.[122] Philosopher Arindam Chakrabarti contrasted Ramakrishna's talkativeness with the Buddha's legendary reticence, and compared his teaching style to that of Socrates.[123]
Divine nature[edit]
To a devotee Sri Ramakrishna said:
It has been revealed to me that there exists an Ocean of Consciousness without limit. From It come all things of the relative plane, and in It they merge again. These waves arising from the Great Ocean merge again in the Great Ocean. I have clearly perceived all these things.[124]
Ramakrishna regarded the Supreme Being to be both Personal and Impersonal, active and inactive:
When I think of the Supreme Being as inactive - neither creating nor preserving nor destroying - I call Him Brahman or Purusha, the Impersonal God. When I think of Him as active - creating, preserving and destroying - I call Him Sakti or Maya or Prakriti, the Personal God. But the distinction between them does not mean a difference. The Personal and Impersonal are the same thing, like milk and its whiteness, the diamond and its lustre, the snake and its wriggling motion. It is impossible to conceive of the one without the other. The Divine Mother and Brahman are one.[125]
Ramakrishna regarded maya to be of two natures, avidya maya and vidya maya. He explained that avidya maya represents dark forces of creation (e.g. sensual desire, selfish actions, evil passions, greed, lust and cruelty), which keep people on lower planes of consciousness. These forces are responsible for human entrapment in the cycle of birth and death, and they must be fought and vanquished. Vidya maya, on the other hand, represents higher forces of creation (e.g. spiritual virtues, selfless action, enlightening qualities, kindness, purity, love, and devotion), which elevate human beings to the higher planes of consciousness.[126]
Society[edit]
Ramakrishna taught that jatra jiv tatra Shiv (wherever there is a living being, there is Shiva). Captain america winter soldier wiki. His teaching, 'Jive daya noy, Shiv gyane jiv seba' (not kindness to living beings, but serving the living being as Shiva Himself) is considered as the inspiration for the philanthropic work carried out by his chief disciple Vivekananda.[127]
In the Kolkata scene of the mid to late nineteenth century, Ramakrishna was opinionated on the subject of Chakri. Chakri can be described as a type of low-paying servitude done by educated men—typically government or commerce-related clerical positions. On a basic level, Ramakrishna saw this system as a corrupt form of European social organisation that forced educated men to be servants not only to their bosses at the office but also to their wives at home. What Ramakrishna saw as the primary detriment of Chakri, however, was that it forced workers into a rigid, impersonal clock-based time structure. He saw the imposition of strict adherence to each second on the watch as a roadblock to spirituality. Despite this, however, Ramakrishna demonstrated that Bhakti could be practised as an inner retreat to experience solace in the face of Western-style discipline and often discrimination in the workplace.[128]
His spiritual movement indirectly aided nationalism, as it rejected caste distinctions and religious prejudices.[116]
Reception and legacy[edit]
The marble statue of Ramakrishna at Belur Math, the headquarters of the Ramakrishna Mission
Ramakrishna is considered an important figure in the Bengali Renaissance of 19th–20th century. Several organisations have been established in his name.[129] The Ramakrishna Math and Mission is the main organisation founded by Swami Vivekananda in 1897. The Mission conducts extensive work in health care, disaster relief, rural management, tribal welfare, elementary and higher education. The movement is considered as one of the revitalisation movements of India. Amiya Sen writes that Vivekananda's 'social service gospel' stemmed from direct inspiration from Ramakrishna and rests substantially on the 'liminal quality' of the Master's message.[130]
Other organisations include the Ramakrishna Vedanta Society founded by Swami Abhedananda in 1923, the Ramakrishna Sarada Math founded by a rebel group in 1929, the Ramakrishna Vivekananda Mission formed by Swami Nityananda in 1976, and the Sri Sarada Math and Ramakrishna Sarada Mission founded in 1959 as a sister organisation by the Ramakrishna Math and Mission.[129]
Rabindranath Tagore wrote a poem on Ramakrishna, To the Ramakrishna Paramahamsa Deva:[131]
Diverse courses of worship from varied springs of fulfillment have mingled in your meditation.
The manifold revelation of the joy of the Infinite has given form to a shrine of unity in your life
where from far and near arrive salutations to which I join my own.
where from far and near arrive salutations to which I join my own.
During the 1937 Parliament of Religions, which was held at the Ramakrishna Mission in Calcutta, Tagore acknowledged Ramakrishna as a great saint because
..the largeness of his spirit could comprehend seemingly antagonistic modes of sadhana, and because the simplicity of his soul shames for all time the pomp and pedantry of pontiffs and pundits.[132]
Max Müller,[133]Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Sri Aurobindo, and Leo Tolstoy have acknowledged Ramakrishna's contribution to humanity. Ramakrishna's influence is also seen in the works of artists such as Franz Dvorak (1862–1927) and Philip Glass.
Views and studies[edit]
Photograph of Ramakrishna, taken on 10 December 1881 at the studio of 'The Bengal Photographers' in Radhabazar, Calcutta (Kolkata).
Transformation into neo-Vedantin[edit]
Vivekananda portrayed Ramakrishna as an Advaita Vedantin. Vivekananda's approach can be located in the historical background of Ramakrishna and Calcutta during the mid-19th century.[134] Neevel notes that the image of Ramakrishna underwent several transformations in the writings of his prominent admirers, who changed the 'religious madman' into a calm and well-behaving proponent of Advaita Vedanta.[51]Narasingha Sil has argued that Vivekananda revised and mythologised Ramakrishna's image after Ramakrishna's death.[135] McDaniel notes that the Ramakrishna Mission is biased towards Advaita Vedanta, and downplays the importance of Shaktism in Ramakrishna's spirituality.[136] Malcolm McLean argued that the Ramakrishna Movement presents 'a particular kind of explanation of Ramakrishna, that he was some kind of neo-Vedantist who taught that all religions lead to the same Godhead.'[137]
Carl Olson argued that in his presentation of his master, Vivekananda had hid much of Ramakrishna's embarrassing sexual oddities from the public, because he feared that Ramakrishna would be misunderstood.[138] Tyagananda and Vrajaprana argue that Oslon makes his 'astonishing claim' based on Kripal's speculations in Kali's Child, which they argue are unsupported by any of the source texts.[139]
Sumit Sarkar argued that he found in the Kathamrita traces of a binary opposition between unlearned oral wisdom and learned literate knowledge. He argues that all of our information about Ramakrishna, a rustic near-illiterate Brahmin, comes from urban bhadralok devotees, '..whose texts simultaneously illuminate and transform.'[140]
Amiya Prosad Sen criticises Neevel's analysis,[141] and writes that 'it is really difficult to separate the Tantrik Ramakrishna from the Vedantic', since Vedanta and Tantra 'may appear to be different in some respects', but they also 'share some important postulates between them'.[142]
Swami Chinmayananda Pdf
Psychoanalysis[edit]
In 1927 Romain Roland discussed with Sigmund Freud the 'oceanic feeling' described by Ramakrishna.[143]Sudhir Kakar (1991),[144]Jeffrey Kripal (1995),[72] and Narasingha Sil (1998),[145] analysed Ramakrishna's mysticism and religious practices using psychoanalysis,[146] arguing that his mystical visions, refusal to comply with ritual copulation in Tantra, Madhura Bhava, and criticism of Kamini-Kanchana (women and gold) reflect homosexuality.
Romain Rolland and the 'Oceanic feeling'[edit]
The dialogue on psychoanalysis and Ramakrishna began in 1927 when Sigmund Freud's friend Romain Rolland wrote to him that he should consider spiritual experiences, or 'the oceanic feeling,' in his psychological works.[143][147]Romain Rolland described the trances and mystical states experienced by Ramakrishna and other mystics as an 'oceanic' sentiment', one which Rolland had also experienced.[148] Rolland believed that the universal human religious emotion resembled this 'oceanic sense.'[149] In his 1929 book La vie de Ramakrishna, Rolland distinguished between the feelings of unity and eternity which Ramakrishna experienced in his mystical states and Ramakrishna's interpretation of those feelings as the goddess Kali.[150]
The Analyst and the Mystic[edit]
In his 1991 book The Analyst and the Mystic, Indian psychoanalyst Sudhir Kakar saw in Ramakrishna's visions a spontaneous capacity for creative experiencing.[151] Kakar also argued that culturally relative concepts of eroticism and gender have contributed to the Western difficulty in comprehending Ramakrishna.[152] Kakar saw Ramakrishna's seemingly bizarre acts as part of a bhakti path to God.[153]
Kali's Child[edit]
In 1995, Jeffrey J. Kripal in his controversial[154][155]Kali's Child: The Mystical and the Erotic in the Life and Teachings of Ramakrishna, an interdisciplinary[156] study of Ramakrishna's life 'using a range of theoretical models,' most notably psycho-analysis,[115] argued that Ramakrishna's mystical experiences could be seen as symptoms of repressed homoeroticism,[156] 'legitimat[ing] Ramakrishna’s religious visions by situating psychoanalytic discourse in a wider Tantric worldview.[156] Jeffrey J. Kripal argued that Ramakrishna rejected Advaita Vedanta in favour of Shakti Tantra.[157]
Holy Gita By Swami Chinmayananda Pdf
Kripal also argued in Kali's Child that the Ramakrishna Movement had manipulated Ramakrishna's biographical documents, that the Movement had published them in incomplete and bowdlerised editions (claiming among other things, hiding Ramakrishna's homoerotic tendencies), and that the Movement had suppressed Ram Chandra Datta's Srisriramakrsna Paramahamsadever Jivanavrttanta.[72][page needed]
These views were disputed by several authors, scholars, and psychoanalysts, including Alan Roland,[143][158] Kelly Aan Raab,[159] Somnath Bhattacharyya,[160] J.S. Hawley,[153] and Swami Atmajnanananda, who wrote that Jivanavrttanta had been reprinted nine times in Bengali as of 1995,[161]
Jeffrey Kripal translates the phrase kamini-kanchana as lover and gold. The literal translation is Women and Gold. In Ramakrishna's view, lust and greed, are obstacles to God-realization. Kripal associates his translation of the phrase with Ramakrishna's alleged disgust for women as lovers.[162]Swami Tyagananda considered this to be a 'linguistic misconstruction.'[163] Ramakrishna also cautioned his women disciples against purusa-kanchana ('man and gold') and Tyagananda writes that Ramakrishna used Kamini-Kanchana as 'cautionary words' instructing his disciples to conquer the 'lust inside the mind.'[164][note 5]
The application of psychoanalysis has further been disputed by Tyagananda and Vrajaprana as being unreliable in understanding Tantra and interpreting cross-cultural contexts in Interpreting Ramakrishna: Kali's Child Revisited (2010).[167]
See also[edit]
Notes[edit]
- ^According to Anil D. Desai, Ramakrishna suffered from psychomotor epilepsy,[28] also called temporal lobe epilepsy.[29] See Devinsky, J.; Schachter, S. (2009). 'Norman Geschwind's contribution to the understanding of behavioral changes in temporal lobe epilepsy: The February 1974 lecture'. Epilepsy & Behavior. 15 (4): 417–24. doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2009.06.006. PMID19640791. for a description of characteristics of Temporal Lobe Epilepsy, including increased religiosity as 'a very striking feature.' See also Geschwind syndrome, for descriptions of behavioral phenomena evident in some temporal lobe epilepsy patients, and Jess Hill Finding God in a seizure: the link between temporal lobe epilepsy and mysticism for some first-hand descriptions of epilepsy-induced 'visions and trance-like states.'
- ^The Vaishnava Bhakti traditions speak of five different moods,[50] referred to as bhāvas, different attitudes that a devotee can take up to express his love for God. They are: śānta, the 'peaceful attitude'; dāsya, the attitude of a servant; sakhya, the attitude of a friend; vātsalya, the attitude of a mother toward her child; and madhura, the attitude of a woman towards her lover.[51][52]
- ^Referring to Rig Veda Samhita 1.164.46: 'They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni, and he is heavenly nobly-winged Garutman. To what is One, sages give many a title. They call it Agni, Yama, Matarisvan.'.[96] Compare William A. Graham, who states that 'the one' in verse 1.164.46 refers to Vāc, goddess of speech, appearing as 'the creative force and absolute force in the universe.' In later Vedic literature, 'Speech or utterance is also identified with the supreme power or transcendent reality,' and 'equated with Brahman in this sense.'[97]
- ^In his influential[100] 1896 essay 'A real mahatma: Sri Ramakrishna Paramahansa Dev' and his 1899 book Râmakrishna: His Life and Sayings.
- ^Partha Chatterjee wrote that the figure of a woman stands for concepts or entities that have 'little to do with women in actuality' and 'the figure of woman-and-gold signified the enemy within: that part of one's own self which was susceptible to the temptations of ever-unreliable worldly success.' [165] Carl T. Jackson interprets kamini-kanchana to refer to the idea of sex and the idea of money as delusions which prevent people from realising God.[166]
References[edit]
- ^ abhttp://belurmath.org/kids_section/birth-of-sri-ramakrishna/
- ^'Feature'. pib.nic.in.
- ^'Sri Ramakrishna By Swami Nikhilananda'. www.ramakrishna.org.
- ^Mangla, Dharam Vir (1 April 2016). Great Saints & Yogis. Lulu Press, Inc. ISBN9781365013515 – via Google Books.
- ^ abcSmart 1998, p. 409.
- ^Georg 2002, p. 600.
- ^ abcSen 2001, p. 101.
- ^Dr. S. N. Pandey (1 September 2010). West Bengal General Knowledge Digest. Upkar Prakashan. ISBN9788174822826 – via Google Books.
- ^'Biography of Sri Ramakrishna'. 30 January 2012.
- ^Clarke 2006, p. 209.
- ^Brodd 2009, p. 275.
- ^Smith 1976, p. 93.
- ^https://belurmath.org/about-us/ Belur Math Headquarters for the Ramakrishna Order and Mission
- ^Heehs 2002, p. 430.
- ^Chatterjee 1993, pp. 46–47.
- ^Harding 1998, pp. 243–244.
- ^More About Ramakrishna by Swami Prabhananda, 1993, Advaita Ashrama, First Chapter - Who Gave the Name Ramakrishna and When?
- ^More About Ramakrishna by Swami Prabhananda, 1993, Advaita Ashrama, page 23
- ^M's original Bengali diary page 661, Saturday, February 13, 1886
- ^ abJackson 1994, p. 17.
- ^Harding 1998, p. 248.
- ^Sen 2001, p. 92.
- ^Zaleski 2006, pp. 162–163.
- ^ abBhawuk 2003.
- ^Smith 1982, p. 70.
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- ^ abAdiswarananda 2005, p. 65.
- ^ abKatrak 2006.
- ^Bennett 1962.
- ^Harding 1998, p. 250.
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- ^Isherwood 1980, p. 65.
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- ^ abGoldman 1993.
- ^Ramakrishna and His Disciples, Christopher Isherwood, Methuen & Company, Ltd, 1965
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- ^Gospel of Ramakrishna, Introduction, page 22 (the biographical section)
- ^Gospel of Ramakrishna, Introduction, page 27 (the biographical section)
- ^'Ramakrishna and His Disciples', Christopher Isherwood, Methuen & Company, Ltd 1965 page 115
- ^Gospel of Ramakrishna, Introduction, page 33 (the biographical section)
- ^Gospel of Ramakrishna, Introduction, page 34 (the biographical section)
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- ^Gospel of Ramakrishna
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we know that certain Tantric practices, condemned as shockingly immoral, are aimed solely at enabling the adept to make use of the energy required for their realisation to destroy desire within himself root and branch
- ^Neevel 1976, pp. 74–77.
- ^Sen 2001, p. 99
- ^Hixon 2002, p. xliii
- ^Richards, Glyn (1985). A Source-book of modern Hinduism. Routledge. p. 63.
[Ramakrishna] received instructions in yogic techniques which enabled him to control his spiritual energy.
- ^Sen 2001, p. 138
- ^Isherwood, p. 197–198.
- ^ abNikhilananda, Swami. 'Introduction'. The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna.
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- ^Rolland, Romain The Life of Ramakrishna (1984), Advaita Ashram
- ^Isherwood 1980, p. 123.
- ^ abcdKripal 1995.
- ^The vision recorded by Swami Saradananda has some variants in different texts and biographies.Jeffrey J. Kripal (1995), Kali's Child: The Mystical and the Erotic in the Life and Teachings of Ramakrishna. First edition. University of Chicago Press.
- ^Swarup, Ram, Ramakrishna Mission.(1986). Ramakrishna Mission: In search of a new identity. [1]
- ^Isherwood 1980, p. 124.
- ^Rolland, Romain (1929). 'The Return to Man'. The Life of Ramakrishna. pp. 49–62.
- ^Western Admirers of Ramakrishna and His Disciples, Gopal Stavig, 2010, ISBN9788175053342
- ^Ramakrishna Mission Singapore (April 2007). 'Lay Disciples of Ramakrishna'. Nirvana. Ramakrishna Mission, Singapore.
- ^ abRolland, Romain (1929). 'Ramakrishna and the Great Shepherds of India'. The Life of Ramakrishna. pp. 110–130.
- ^Farquhar, John Nicol (1915). Modern Religious Movements in India. Macmillan Co. p. 194.
About 1875, Keshab Chandra Sen made his acquaintance and became very interested in him (Ramakrishna).
- ^Y. Masih (2000). A Comparative Study of Religions. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 198–199.
- ^ abcMukherjee, Dr. Jayasree (May 2004). 'Sri Ramakrishna's Impact on Contemporary Indian Society'. Prabuddha Bharata. Retrieved 4 September 2008.
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- ^Debarry, William Theodore; Ainslie Thomas Embree (1988). Sources of Indian Tradition: From the Beginning to 1800. Stephen N. Hay. Columbia University Press. p. 63. ISBN978-0-231-06415-6.
- ^Chetanananda, Swami (1989). They Lived with God. St. Louis: Vedanta Society of St. Louis. p. 163.
- ^Beckerlegge (2006), Swami Vivekananda's Legacy of Service, p.27
- ^ abRolland, Romain (1929). 'The Master and his Children'. The Life of Ramakrishna. pp. 143–168. ISBN978-8185301440.
- ^ abcdeRolland 1929, pp. 201–214.
- ^Sen 2006, p. 168
- ^ abWilliams, George M. (1989). ''Swami Vivekananda: Archetypal Hero or Doubting Saint?''. In Robert D. Baird (ed.). Religion in Modern India. p. 325.
- ^Gospel of Ramakrishna by Swami Nikhilananda, page 407
- ^ abSwami Prabhavananda 2019, p. 'I have practised Hinduism, Islam, Christianity'.
- ^Swami Prabhavananda 2019.
- ^Gospel of Ramakrishna page 423
- ^Gospel of Ramakrishna, page 423
- ^Rig Veda Samhita 1.164.46, Wiki Source
- ^William A. Graham, Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion, , p.70-71.
- ^Cohen, Martin (2008). 'Spiritual Improvisations: Ramakrishna, Aurobindo, and the Freedom of Tradition'. Religion and the Arts. BRILL. 12 (1–3): 277–293. doi:10.1163/156852908X271079.
- ^Vedanta Society of New York http://www.vedantany.org/sayings-of-sri-ramakrishna/
- ^John Rosselli, 'Sri Ramakrishna and the educated elite of late nineteenth century' Contributions to Indian Sociology 1978; 12; 195 [2]
- ^Friedrich Max Müller, Râmakrishna: His Life and Sayings, pp.93–94, Longmans, Green, 1898
- ^Neevel 1976, p. 85.
- ^Spivak 2007, p. 197
- ^ abCarl T. Jackson (1994), p.154
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- ^The word MUSEUM is in all caps to indicate it was said in English.
- ^American Vedantist Issue #74, Summer 2018, Sri Ramakrishna – English Lessons [3]
- ^Hixon, Lex (1997). 'Introduction'. Great Swan. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. xi. ISBN978-0-943914-80-0.
- ^Sen, Amiya P. (June 2006). 'Sri Ramakrishna, the Kathamrita and the Kolkata middle classes: an old problematic revisited'. Postcolonial Studies. 9 (2): 165–177. doi:10.1080/13688790600657835.
- ^Isherwood, Christopher (1945). Vedanta for the Western World: A Symposium on Vedanta. Vedanta Press. p. 267. ISBN978-0-87481-000-4.
- ^Arindam Chakrabarti, 'The Dark Mother Flying Kites: Sri Ramakrishna's Metaphysic of Morals' Sophia, 33 (3), 1994
- ^Ramakrishna (1980). The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, Mahendranath Gupta, Abridged ed., (tr.) Swami Nikhilananda, 1974, pp.54 & 359, Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center, NY. ISBN0911206027.
- ^'Sri Ramakrisha The Great Master, by Swami Saradananda, (tr.) Swami Jagadananda, 5th ed., v.1, pp.558-561, Sri Ramakrishna Math, Madras'.
- ^Neevel 1976, p. 82.
- ^Y. Masih (2000). A Comparative Study of Religions. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 207.
- ^Sumit Sarkar, ' 'Kaliyuga', 'Chakri' and 'Bhakti': Ramakrishna and His Times,' Economic and Political Weekly 27, 29 (18 July 1992): 1548–1550.
- ^ abBeckerlegge,Swami Vivekananda's Legacy of Service pp.1–3
- ^Sen 2006, p. 165
- ^Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center of New York. (1996). Sri Ramakrishna Tributes.
- ^Katheleen M O'Connell. Utsav-Celebration: Tagore’s Approach to Cultivating the Human Spirit and the Study of Religion.
- ^Max Muller, The Life and Sayings of Ramakrishna, page 10 1898
- ^Sarkar 1999, p. 15, 293.
- ^Sil, Narasingha P. (1993). 'Vivekānanda's Rāmakṛṣṇa: An Untold Story of Mythmaking and Propaganda'. Numen. 40 (1): 38–62. doi:10.1163/156852793X00040. JSTOR3270397.
- ^McDaniel 2011, p. 54.
- ^McLean, Malcolm, 'Kali's Child: The Mystical and Erotic in the Life and Teachings of Ramakrishna.'The Journal of the American Oriental Society Tuesday, 1 July 1997 Archived 28 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine
- ^Olson, Carl (1998). 'Vivekānanda and Rāmakṛṣṇa Face to Face: An Essay on the Alterity of a Saint'. International Journal of Hindu Studies. 2 (1): 43–66. doi:10.1007/s11407-998-0008-2. JSTOR20106536.
- ^Tyagananda & Vrajaprana 2010, p. 172
- ^Sumit Sarkar, 'Post-modernism and the Writing of History' Studies in History 1999; 15; 293
- ^Sen 2006.
- ^Sen (2001), p. 22.
- ^ abcRoland, Alan (October 2004). 'Ramakrishna: Mystical, Erotic, or Both?'. Journal of Religion and Health. 37: 31–36. doi:10.1023/A:1022956932676.
- ^The Analyst and the Mystic (1991)[page needed]
- ^Sil 1998.
- ^Jonte-Pace 2003, p. 94.
- ^'Oceanic Feeling' by Henri Vermorel and Madeleline Vermoral in International Dictionary of Psychoanalysis[4]
- ^The Enigma of the Oceanic Feeling: Revisioning the Psychoanalytic Theory of Mysticism By William Barclay Parsons, Oxford University Press US, 1999 ISBN0-19-511508-2, p 37
- ^page 12 Primitive Passion: Men, Women, and the Quest for Ecstasy By Marianna Torgovnick University of Chicago Press, 1998
- ^Parsons 1999, 14
- ^Cite error: The named reference
parsons_133
was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^Cite error: The named reference
sk
was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ abHawley, John Stratton (June 2004). 'The Damage of Separation: Krishna's Loves and Kali's Child'. Journal of the American Academy of Religion. 72 (2): 369–393. doi:10.1093/jaarel/lfh034. PMID20681099.
- ^McDaniel 2011, p. 53.
- ^Balagangadhara 2008.
- ^ abcParsons 2005, p. 7479.
- ^Parsons 1999, 135–136
- ^Roland, Alan. (2007) The Uses (and Misuses) Of Psychoanalysis in South Asian Studies: Mysticism and Child Development. Invading the Sacred: An Analysis of Hinduism Studies in America. Delhi, India: Rupa & Co. ISBN978-81-291-1182-1
- ^Raab 1995, pp. 321–341.
- ^Invading the Sacred, p.152-168
- ^Atmajnanananda 1997.
- ^Kripal 1995, p. 281; 277–287.
- ^Tyagananda & Vrajaprana 2010, p. 243.
- ^Tyagananda & Vrajaprana 2010, pp. 256–257.
- ^Chaterjee 1993, pp. 68–69
- ^Carl T. Jackson (1994), pp. 20–21.
- ^See:p.127 and 'Interpretation in Cross-Cultural Contexts'. In Tyagananda & Vrajaprana 2010
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- Balagangadhara, S. N.; Sarah Claerhout (2008). 'Are Dialogues Antidotes to Violence? Two Recent Examples from Hinduism Studies'(PDF). Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies. 7 (19): 118–143.
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- Chatterjee, Partha (1993), The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories, Princeton University Press, p. 296, ISBN978-0-691-01943-7
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- Gupta, Mahendranath ('M.'); Swami Nikhilananda (1942). The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna. Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center. ISBN0-911206-01-9.
- Gupta, Mahendranath ('M.'); Dharm Pal Gupta (2001). Sri Sri Ramakrishna Kathamrita. Sri Ma Trust. ISBN978-81-88343-00-3.
- Harding, Elizabeth U. (1998). Kali, the Dark Goddess of Dakshineswar. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN81-208-1450-9.
- Heehs, Peter (2002). 'Ramakrishna Paramahamsa'. Indian Religions. Orient Blackswan.
- Hixon, Lex (2002). Great Swan: Meetings With Ramakrishna. Burdett, N.Y.: Larson Publications. ISBN0-943914-80-9.
- Isherwood, Christopher (1980). Ramakrishna and His Disciples. Hollywood, Calif: Vedanta Press. ISBN0-87481-037-X. (reprint, orig. 1965)
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Swami Chinmayananda India
Further reading[edit]
- Gupta, Mahendranath, The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, translated by Swami Nikhilananda, Chennai: Sri Ramakrishna Math
- Neevel, Walter G.; Smith, Bardwell L. (1976). 'The Transformation of Ramakrishna'. Hinduism: New Essays in the History of Religions. Brill Archive.
- Sen, Amiya P. (2010). Ramakrishna Paramahamsa: Sadhaka of Dakshineswar. Penguin Books Limited. ISBN978-81-8475-250-2.
- Jeffrey J. Kripal (1995), Kali's Child: The Mystical and the Erotic in the Life and Teachings of Ramakrishna. First edition. University of Chicago Press.
- Shourie, Arun (2017), Two Saints: Speculations around and about Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and Ramana Maharishi., Harper Collins.
- Tyagananda; Vrajaprana (2010). Interpreting Ramakrishna: Kali's Child Revisited. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN978-81-208-3499-6.
- Advaita Ashrama. Ramakrishna on Himself. Advaita Ashrama. ISBN978-81-7505-812-5.
External links[edit]
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- Ramakrishna at Curlie
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